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The Decline of Children's Kurdish Traditional Games and Their Impact on Cultural Identity

Introduction&nbsp;The different languages of the world, just as they reflect their peoples’ belief systems, ways of thinking and material culture, also reflect the different roles and the relations between men and women in any given society. These linguistic differences either highlight the distinctions between genders or reinforce them. Indeed, language among men and women is often not neutral in terms of structure, vocabulary or usage, it carries gendered messages or biases. That is why sociolinguistics is one of those disciplines that can provide important information and insights into the sociology of gender; enabling us to look at the differences from a linguistic perspective while considering the dual role of language in representation and reinforcement, as gendered language can reinforce social differences between men and women. Therefore, this research looks at the different languages of the world, in particular, how they reflect the roles, expectations and statuses of women. The aim of this research is to identify the underlying causes of the linguistic differences between men and women, and to analyze the impacts of gendered language biases by relying on empirical data and theoretical perspectives.&nbsp; Linguistic Differences between Men and WomenLinguistic studies show that in many societies, the speech of men and women differs. In some cases, the differences are small and subtle, barely noticeable for the majority of people or accepted as natural, just like variations in facial expressions. In some instances, gender differences between males and females are noticed. In some languages, differences do not lie only in the frequency of usage, but pair words, one male and one female, are used to convey the same meaning. To illustrate, in the Caribbean Islands of the West Indies, women use the word ‘Koyo’ to refer to rain, while men use the term ‘Konobo’. Many other similar word pairs are found in this language (Hickerson, 1980: 90). In Koasati, an indigenous language used in southwestern Louisiana, differences are found in specific and conditional verb forms that vary depending on the gender of the speaker. Koasati-speaking men use the term ‘Lakahoz’ when they want to say ‘Lift it’ while the women say ‘Lakahol’ (Haas, 1964: 228). In this case, grammatical forms are employed, not to refer to the listener, but are chosen to align with the speaker’s gender (Pi Ferraro, 2000: 100).&nbsp;According to Sapir (1929,a), Similar to the Djabugay natives in Queensland, Australia, there are individuals who use a specific language variant which explicitly distinguishes between male and female (Dixon, 1971). This dialect shares the same phonemes and approximately the same grammatical system as the main language, but it has a completely distinct vocabulary. However, both genders can use both types of terms. &nbsp;Another indigenous language of Australia, Yanewa, has some 90 to 150 speakers. Yanewa features variants which distinguish between genders. These variants use the same core vocabulary but different class-indicative prefixes are added to nouns, verbs, and pronouns. According to Bradley (1998), the men use a dialect among themselves while the women use a different one among each other. The children are raised using their mothers’ variant, and boys must switch to the men’s dialect as they reach puberty (Wardhaugh, 2013: 508-509).In some languages, the difference is so significant that men and women actually use different vocabulary, pronunciations and grammatical forms. This issue is observed in the Japanese language, where there exist different words for men and women (Lawrence Tresk, 2001: 120). Rarely, there are cases where men and women use two completely different languages, such as the Chinese language Nüshu. Nüshu was used until recently and spoken only by women.&nbsp;According to a report by JamJam Online: The last Chinese woman who spoke Nüshu (The only language spoken exclusively by women) passed away. Nüshu, a century-old script, became extinct with the woman’s death. According to Canal 3, a French TV channel, “Yang Huanyi”, the only woman who still used Nüshu passed away at the age of 98. Her death signifies the end of Nüshu, a scripted language used for centuries by women in remote areas of Central and Southern China. Nüshu is the only language in the world specific to women. Manuscripts in Nüshu are very rare; they were traditionally burned or buried with the dead.&nbsp;Additionally, gender differences can be observed in the intricacies of most languages, such as in the rhythm of speech, pitch and tonality, emphasis and manners of expression. For example, according to Kramer &nbsp;(1974), in America, compared to men, women speak with less emphasis and use more qualifiers after making a statement &nbsp;(ie: This might just be my opinion, but…) or forming questions (ie: ‘Isn’t that so?’ or ‘Don’t you agree?’). Moreover, women use less inappropriate and impolite words and tend to use evocative expressions like ‘as far as i know’ and emphatic phrases such as ‘very’ and ‘so’ (ie: I was so happy to see you). Compared to men, women are more keen on speaking precisely and thoughtfully (P. Ferraro, 1379: 101). To add, women are more prone to using expressive or emotive terms such as ‘divine, cute, thrilling etc’ whereas men rarely use them. Moreover, distinctions made by women in certain domains are more precise than men’s. For example, in the domain of colors, women are more likely to use specific terms such as neon green, ecru, chartreuse, and lavender (Lawrence Tressk, 2001: 121).&nbsp; Research Questions:This research attempts to answer the following questions<ul><li>Are languages gender neutral? Or is there a clear and observable difference in the usage of language between men and women?</li><li>Does the language of men and women differ in content and structure?&nbsp;</li><li>Which factors contribute to differences in the language of men and women?</li><li>What is the impact of linguistic differences between men and women? In other words, what is the gender of languages?&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</li></ul>Theoretical Framework:Colonial Theory&nbsp;“Many words are unique to men, women understand these terms but never use them. Conversely, certain words and phrases that are unique to women are never used by men, or that men are mocked for using. Frequently in their conversations it appears that women have a different language from men” (Trudgill, 1997: 105). How can we explain these differences? The West Indians have their own generally accepted explanation for this condition. The report cited continues on this topic. "The natives of Dominica say that when the Caribs came to occupy these islands, the Arawak tribe settled. The Caribs annihilated everyone besides the women, whom they married to increase the population. The presence of similarities between the speech of the Arawaks of the American continent and the speech of Caribbean women was confirmed" (Tradgill, 1996: 105). This suggests that they attributed these differences to the mingling of the Carib and Arawak linguistic groups, which were divided by gender following the occupation of these islands.&nbsp; Differences in gender roles and the socialization process as an explanatory factor in linguistic differences between men and womenThis viewpoint propagates that men and women are social creatures who have learned to behave in different manners. Linguistic behavior is primarily learned behavior. Linguistically, men learn how to become men while women learn to become women. Society makes it so that they experience life differently. As we have seen, the reason behind gendered linguistic variations is that language, as a social phenomenon,is closely tied to social perceptions. From a social perspective, men and women differ as society assigns them different roles and expectations, and language merely reflects this reality (Trudgill, 1997: 116). The differences in verbal abilities between men and women can be largely explained by taking into account the different socialization of men and women (Wardhaugh, 2013: 520).Taboo Theory&nbsp;Taboos could have a strong impact on the development of gender-differentiated vocabulary in general. In case of taboos being &nbsp;associated with certain things or activities, for example if women are barred from using certain authentic words, they may begin replacing them with new ones and this causes gender differences in vocabulary.&nbsp; Relationships of Dominance and the Linguistic differences between men and women&nbsp;For some advocates of gender equality, like Robin Lakoff, sexism in language is merely a reflection of sexism in society. In reality, this phenomenon is a symptom, not a cause (Robin Lakoff, 1975). They believe that only through changes that effectively combat sexism can any linguistic changes be achieved. Sara Schultz summarizes this point by stating: People combat sexism through their actions, not merely through ‘speech’ or by exchanging one dialect for another (Schultz, 1981: 25) (Ibid: 170).Research Methods:This research is a theoretical, in-depth qualitative study that relies on current studies in the fields of sociolinguistics, sociology of language and sociology of gender. &nbsp;Data used in this research is based on various languages of the world. This research examines the essential differences in the usage of a language between men and women. The comparative method is used to examine the differences in grammar, vocabulary and semantic load between men and women. These differences are explained using theories from sociolinguistics, sociology of language and sociology of gender.&nbsp;Research FindingsIn researching the different languages of the world, we observe differences in the language of men and women. This difference exists in various regions of the world; these differences vary from men and women speaking completely different languages, to differences in vocabulary, grammatical structure or emphasis and tonality of expression and word choice. These differences can occur due to different reasons, including historical events, the existence of beliefs such as taboos, gender roles and different expectations imposed on men and women during the process of socialization, social norms and standards regarding the family and women, and unequal power dynamics between men and women in society.&nbsp;The difference can be summarized as follows:&nbsp;<ul><li>The usage of language differs among men and women</li><li>Women, in contrast with men, focus more on emotional responsibilities in social relations.</li><li>Women are more inclined than men to use linguistic tools that emphasize solidarity/agreement. </li><li>Women tend to communicate in ways that preserve and foster solidarity/agreement, whereas men tend to communicate in ways that increase their power and prestige (especially in formal contexts)</li><li>In most languages, the nature of words, linguistic content and meaning reinforces the dominance and higher status of men over women.&nbsp;</li></ul>According to the findings of this study, linguistic differences between men and women exist in many languages. This aligns with the theory of linguistic relativity, which suggests that such differences have objective and social impacts and outcomes.&nbsp;Whorf believed that people do not only inhabit their material environment and social life, but they live in the world of their mother tongue as well. The world around us is built on the foundations of the ‘world of language’. Dialects notwithstanding, each language has its own distinct perspective and a background that distinguishes it from other languages (Konratov, 1984: 70).We model the world through philosophy and science and the arts. But one of the most important modeling systems is the language used in daily life. Language is the primary tool for disseminating information in human societies; but language transcends this function. Language can model the world or filter the world through its prism. Contrary to those who simplify it, language is not only an ordered list of different experiences that can be discussed. Rather, it is a symbolic and independent and innovative organization that outlines to us the limits and gaps of experience, on the basis of its own formal wholeness. (Ibid 77). In this way, the biases and directives embedded in language can identify and reinforce gender differences and inequalities in the real world. Therefore, discussing how our language impacts our understanding of the external world is of interest to those who advocate gender equality, for multiple reasons. In this regard, several critical studies on English vocabulary have been conducted by gender equality advocates (Nielsen et al., 1977; Schultz, 1990; John Mills, 1989), which reveal that in many cases, the labels used in the English language are gendered in nature and inherited.&nbsp;Other gender equality advocates have written on issues of vocabulary in the English language, referring to those experiences of women that are difficult to express in English because English lacks the necessary expressions to articulate them (Spender, 1980). Moreover, these linguistic findings show to what extent society relies on gendered language. Some gender theorists believe that fundamentally reforming language is of no use, because as long as society is sexist, sexism would manifest itself in language. Changing language is a struggle with the symptoms not the root causes, but those gender equality advocates that accept the linguistic relativity theory, tend to advocate linguistic reform, as they believe the dissemination of those meanings produces more and reinforces gender inequality and sexism in &nbsp;society (Paknezhad Jabrouti, 1971: 40-48). References- Paknehad Jabrouti, M. (2002). *Superiority and Inferiority in Language*. Tehran: Gam No. First Edition.- Pey Fararo, G. (2000). *Cultural Anthropology: The Cultural Dimension of Global Trade*. Translated by Gh. A. Shamlu. Tehran: SAMT Publications. First Edition.- Trudgill, P. (1997). *Sociolinguistics*. Translated by M. Tabatabaei. Tehran: Agah Publishing. First Edition.- Hyde, J. S. (2005). *Psychology of Women*. Translated by A. Khamseh. Tehran: Arjmand Publishing, Agah Publishing. First Edition.- Kondratov, A. (1984). *Language and Linguistics*. Translated by A. Solhjoo. Tehran: Center for Publications, Allameh Tabataba'i University. First Edition.- Lawrence Trask, R. (2001). *Introduction to Linguistics*. Translated by F. Akhlaghi. Tehran: Ney Publications. First Edition.- Wardhaugh, R. (2014). *An Introduction to Sociolinguistics*. Translated by R. Amini. Tehran: Paper Scent Publishing. First Edition.- Haas, Mary. (1964). "Men's and Women's Speech in Koasati." In *Language in Culture and Society*, pp. 228-233, edited by Dell Hymes. New York: Harper &amp; Row.- Hickerson, Nancy P. (1980). *Linguistic Anthropology*. New York: Holt, Rinehart &amp; Winston.

A Sociological Analysis of the Linguistic Differences between Men and Women

The Impact of Self-efficacy on Dialect Diffusion: Evidence from Jaffi Variety

Nomadism is a part of Kurdish society, and if we look at ancient Kurdish history, we discover that much of the Kurdish nation traces its origins to nomadic tribes and families. Kurdistan, due to its geographic attributes, has historically been and remains one of the best locations for the nomadic lifestyle. Two types of environments, on which the nomadic tradition is based, have existed in Kurdistan. The first is (Garmian) meaning warm regions, inhabited during the colder seasons and the second is (Kwestan), referring to colder regions inhabited during the hotter months. According to their ways of life, nomads have developed a culture of their own. Their ways of life and culture are distinguishable from an urban or rural lifestyle. The art of weaving or embroidery is one of the strong cultural attributes practiced by the nomads. That is not to say that cities or villages do not have their weaving traditions, only to say that the nomadic embroidery differs from theirs.Accordingly, in academia, weaving is divided into three categories: Urban, Rural, and Nomadic. In this paper, we are only concerned with the nomadic tradition. Of the three types of weaving referenced, nomadic weaving is the most relevant to the Kurds, as it is the type that has been passed down to us the most, and thus gives us the most insight. Weaving refers to anything hand-woven. Weaving, in nomadic societies, was not seen as a commodity or an exchangeable good, because woven products were created as tools needed in daily life. Therefore analyses of nomadic weaving traditions must not solely be conducted through an economic lens.From a historical perspective, nomadic weaving has been influenced by several factors:- Life conditions - The central role of women - Space and Time - Celebrations, Joy, Festivities and Sorrows&nbsp; - Ideas and Beliefs Nomads actively seek locations wherein it is spring, and are thus referred to as 'A society of Eternal Spring'. As the climate gets hotter, nomads travel to cool places, and as the weather turns cold, nomads head to warmer regions. In essence, nomads always live in verdant areas during springtime. This practice is rooted in their lifestyle which depends on animals. Nomads seek pastures for their animals to graze on.The nomadic color palette represents joy and harmony, which distinguishes them from urban or rural handicrafts. Nomadic conditions have influenced their weaving practices. To illustrate, their rugs, kilims, and carpets have been primarily conceived in rectangular, long squares, or triangular shapes to fit into the nomads' tents. Similarly, traversing cold regions and hot regions has made it so that the nomads' color palette is largely warm-toned. Likewise, the wood on which the carpets are woven is flat and must be placed on the ground, as the wooden planks cannot fit into the tents due to the tents' small width and height. This also makes it so their wooden planks are placed vertically on the ground, making it easier to transport them as well. Even so, the nomadic lifestyle has not been easy without weaving. Without weaving, nomadism has been challenging. Weavers have hand-produced everything, from clothing to rugs to tents. This culture of weaving among nomads exists for several reasons. Firstly, nomads are far away from economic centers and modern financial exchanges. Additionally, the lack of rapid transportation, the relationship of nomads to nature, and the abundance of wool are factors that differently influence the nomadic way of life. Handicrafts were used in daily life, which is why their variety ranges from belts, rugs, ropes, and curtains to products made for aesthetic purposes. Most of the nomadic handicrafts are made by nomad women. In contrast to women, we could say that men had a much smaller role in weaving handicrafts. As such, these handicrafts are the carriers of women's spirits and feelings, thus we perceive that women have interlaced cultural sentiments and beliefs in these works.From ancient times to the present, it is women who have been directly able to practice and preserve weaving; when researchers explore this topic, they must consider this fact and discuss the context, beliefs, social reality, and especially the women of this culture that produce such handicrafts. The handicrafts are the products of a society's conscience, meaning that, any event that has occurred within an era, any belief, religion, or idea has been symbolically expressed in the woven works. Indeed, the weaver in a nomadic society does not begin to weave a rug carpet, or any handicraft without a design concept in mind. Additionally, sometimes the weaver designs something driven by a belief that has been passed down from centuries prior or a belief that is prevalent at the time of crafting.The majority of the designs in the handicrafts, especially those of nomads, are not simply descriptive or primitive designs. Rather, the handicrafts are driven from designs that have been passed down much like our oral literature; face to face, mouth to mouth. Weaving has been passed down from the weaver to those who learn from them. Or, the designs are the products of a mind, a feeling, a belief of a time in which the weaver existed. That is why, in the academic literature on handicrafts, it is called 'The Thought of Embroidery' about the priority of beliefs and thoughts, with less attention paid to a sense of design. Nomadic handicrafts are not lacking in color, rather, the geographies inhabited by nomads are limited in the types of foliage from which nomads could extract pigments. Also, nomads were far from urban centers so they could not purchase pigments to use in their products. That is why, each tribe used colors and pigments depending on which warm or cool region they were inhabiting in a specific period. In this regard, experts recognize and categorize weavers by their tribe. Weavers from tribes crafted their works according to their standards, traditions, culture, needs, and geography, using their specific colors, methods, and motifs.In recent years, nomads have been under the influence of global changes, economic progress, and increased trade in their areas. As a result, their cultural and traditional spirit has been dulled to a certain extent. The nomads' neighboring cities and villages produce handicrafts requested by merchants. So, handicrafts have primarily become a commodity, not so much a part of nomads' daily lives. As of now, the number of nomads has decreased and unfortunately, the rate of their local production is also gradually decreasing. Even the usage of handcrafted tents is on the decline among nomads. Handicrafts, due to negligence, have fallen under adverse modern influences and are becoming less creative overall. That is why, a great responsibility which we must shoulder is to recognize the importance of that which has been passed down to us and to preserve this essential part of our culture and prevent its disappearance. We must preserve it and pass it down to future generations. The responsibility we bear in this situation is to preserve this part of our culture by any means, whether it is through research and opening museums, film-making, documentaries, archival work, and any other means available to us.Unfortunately, as of now, there is no visible cultural institution or museum in Kurdistan that could make a feasible plan for the preservation of these handicrafts in the future. We must find joy in the work of preserving these handicrafts for future generations, so they can make use of them. The current conditions faced by Kurdish traditions and culture require thorough plans and programs that must be implemented before the culture fades entirely. Our society and youth must be made aware of their own culture so that their perceptions have intellectual depth and they take on the task of cultural preservation in the face of the hegemony imposed on our culture. In academic centers, plans must be made to raise awareness and encourage preservation. Advantage should be taken of research conducted by experts, and museums should structurally work on this subject and coordinate with experts. Alarmingly, the majority of Kurdish handicrafts are not serving the Kurdish economy, nor are they in our archives or museums. Rather, they are sold cheaply and fill foreign markets where they are stripped of their cultural identity. As of now, when we are holding this discussion, our neighboring countries' economies rely on handicrafts, especially artificial rugs or carpets. It has been many years now that specialized departments dedicated to the systematic study of cultural arts have opened in universities. In most European countries, in museums, shops, and markets, one could find Kurdish handicrafts that are neglected and cheapened among ourselves.Finally, any topic that we have briefly covered is worthy of being investigated and analyzed thoroughly, requiring devoted time for us to acquire a more comprehensive understanding of Kurdish culture, so as to prevent it from being misrepresented elsewhere. As such, I hope that hereinafter, people will try to preserve and revive handicrafts and Kurdish culture. References:&nbsp;مێژووی هونەر و کولتوور &nbsp;بەرگی شەشەم - Arthur Upham Popeکولتووری عەشیرەکان بەشی کوردستان -Ali Nozarpour &nbsp;&nbsp;فەرشە کوردیەکان - Shirin Souresrafil&nbsp;کۆڕسکەری(تەونکەر) کوردی، وێنەێک لە هزری خۆی - &nbsp;Masoud Rahimiکاریگەری کولتوور و کۆمەلگا-ئایدیای کولتوور - &nbsp;Terry Eagleton

Nomadic Weaving: On The Importance of Preserving Kurdish Handicrafts

Introduction&nbsp;Modernity was an opposition to its predecessor. Rationality, the belief in the supremacy of human reason were core beliefs of Modernity. Therefore, various social, philosophical, economic, and political ideas appeared in forms of governance as well. Occupation was&nbsp;expanded and accelerated, especially by the highly industrialised states. In the era of modernity, the processes of occupation and colonisation were supported by science and technology, with the aim of legitimising their occupation. Research question: the main question in this paper is, What is the relationship between Modernity and the Western Occupation process? &nbsp;To what is modernity attributed? How has modernity been defined?&nbsp;Research significance and choice of the title: the importance and value of the research lies in the fact that we have tried to explain in a precise and scientific manner the causes and the nature of the emergence of modernity, and that’s based on many books and articles and specialised publications related to our topic. &nbsp;Research Aims: the aim of this paper is to present the reasons for the emergence of modernity and the nature of its formation, to investigate and analyse the event that led to its emergence, and to explain the principles and the reasons for its emergence and the attitude of the occupier states. To investigate this by focusing on the stages of modernity in occupation has been one of our most important aims.&nbsp;Research methodology: the methodology used in this study is the descriptive and deductive analytic method. For research on events, we have relied on several sources, such as books in various languages, articles, and other publications.&nbsp;Research structure: this paper consists of two main parts, in the first part (the concept of Modernity and the history of its emergence) we have divided it into two sections. Therein, the concept of Modernity is defined. The second part sheds light on the History and the emergence of Modernity and Postmodernity. In the second section (modernity and postmodernity and occupation) we have emphasised on the process of occupation in the times of modernity and postmodernity. In addition, the absence of modernity in Kurdish history along with the Kurdish occupation in the modern era have been discussed.&nbsp; The concept of modernity and the history of its emergenceA1. The concept of Modernity&nbsp;The concept of modernity was first used by Quijano Anibal, who outlined the political objectives behind this concept within a broad definition. The concept was later developed and emphasised upon by Walter Mignolo. On the relationship between the concepts of Modernity and Coloniality, both scholars believe that both concepts are interconnected and are two sides of the same coin, they claim that modernity aims to accomplish the goals of colonialism albeit in a new manner. &nbsp;Also, according to the De-colonialist school of thought, modernity is the dark side of colonialism, using new methods to alter violent colonial agenda and framing it in a new context (1).&nbsp;The conflict between the Old and New, originating in Post-mediaeval or Renaissance Europe, is primarily a concept in science, technology, philosophy, art, architecture, and related fields. Modernism and Modernity are two different concepts, modernism is an external remnant of Western civilization (2). &nbsp;The origin of the term modernity goes back to (Modo) from ancient Latin and (Modernus) from new Latin, which means recent, which is also translated as contemporary. &nbsp;The term modernity has a long history. In its Latin form, it was first used in the 5th century AD to differentiate between Roman and Pagan times (3).&nbsp;A2. Definition of Modernity&nbsp;Modernity, like most concepts in the human sciences, does not fit in a single static definition and it has several definitions and interpretations, sometimes depending on the era. Some of the definitions are:French sociologist Alain Touraine claims that modernity is not only the passage of time and a simple change, but it is in essence the diffusion of the products of human intellectual activity and the products of other scientific, technological, and administrative activities. Modernity places science at the centre of social life, replacing the occult or the metaphysical mentality (4).&nbsp; Modernity is a revolution for a man-centric and reason-centric society, that is modernity is the historical period in which man becomes the central subject of life in all spheres and the human mind is seen as a trustworthy instrument which gives direction to man (5).&nbsp; Modernity is the logic of a new worldview, modernity means living in a world that is different from the old one, and therefore it must be treated with different methodologies (6).&nbsp;The Rise of ModernityRegarding the rise of modernity, there are different views, some trace it to the beginning of the industrial revolution in Europe, while others associate it with the Enlightenment in the 18th century, some others associate it with Martin Luther’s renaissance and reformation (7).&nbsp;The rise of modernity can be explained within four main contexts, because modernity came to being as a process that lasted a few centuries (8). They are the following:First; Renaissance: caused an exchange of ideas and culture and art which eventually led to humanism. The end of the Christian crusades and the return of the soldiers from the battlefields and the telling of the advancements of the outside world in comparison to Europe, which was similar to a prison because of the strength of religious institutions, caused an expansion of trade and and the opening of the doors of Europe to the outside world (8).&nbsp;Second; Religious reform: the cause of religious pluralism and the decline of catholic fundamentalism. It reduced the influence of the catholic church as the main political and economical power (9).&nbsp;Third; the enlightenment and the age of reason: this was the cause of the scientific revolution and the decline of religious dogmatisms. The concept of enlightenment dates to the beginning of the 18th century, it was an intellectual movement that attempted to create a space for the development and reception of new sciences in a logical way (10). Generally speaking, the characteristics of enlightenment are as follows:&nbsp;- The belief in progress. - The belief in the centrality of the human mind, and, the perception of reason as the only means to resolve issues.&nbsp; - The equation of reason to freedom, and, emphasising on reason as an instrument for social progress.&nbsp; - Humanism, meaning that one prioritises and comprehends enlightenment, as a result of them developing their cognitive capacities.&nbsp; -Emphasis on truth as a systemic foundation of knowledge, and focalizing the attainment of truth as a project.&nbsp; &nbsp;-A clear opposition to religion.&nbsp; -In politics, the defence of the natural rights of man by law and government establishment of a system that prevents the violation of power (11).&nbsp;Fourth; The Industrial Revolution, A product of economic and technological developments.&nbsp;One of the consequences of modernity was the rationalisation of Society and Science. Additionally, Science was separated from Metaphysics, the Scientific Method rose in favour of dogmatism. Lastly, Reason was seen as the ultimate judge in every field, and this led to a rational (calculating) approach to life. Control is another consequence. The goal of modernity was to dominate all intentions, instincts, opinions, and behaviours that do not stem from reason; that is to control not only nature but Man himself, to control society and ultimately life itself.&nbsp;The rise of the secular state, and the spread of secularism in all spheres of life. The loss of freedom. The enlightenment postulated the reason-freedom equation, which proposes that as rationality increases, so does freedom. In this respect,&nbsp; Hegel believed that freedom is attained through understanding fate, the more power over fate through knowledge and reason (rationality) the more freedom increases. (20).&nbsp;Science and technology are considered to be of the most important fields of modernity and postmodernity, although modernity only includes the seven major industrial nations that govern the world namely, The United Kingdom, France, Canada, Italy, Germany, and Japan (21). These countries have been able, through technology, to project their power onto most of the world.&nbsp; B. Modernity and Occupation&nbsp;B1. Modernity and RacismModernity created fertile grounds for the rise of racist ideologies. Modern ethics were driven by scientific rationale, just as the ethics of premodern societies were driven from religion or mythologies. Thus, &nbsp;the theory of racism had to take on a scientific form as a disguise. Indeed, that was the task that ethnologists, linguists, and humanistic psychologists undertook in the early 19th century (15).&nbsp;The 19th century is known for seeking scientific methods and evidence to prove superiority and difference between the human races. As a result, several researches appeared such as the one conducted by &nbsp;Scottish scientist Robert Knox, on the shape of the human skull. Knox proposed that the white man’s skull is more round and of higher pedigree in comparison to the black man’s skull, which is longer and closer in shape to an animal's. Furthermore, Ernest Renan’s supposed linguistic evidence claimed that the mind of the Aryan race is superior to the Semitic mind. Scientific racism reached its peak with the rise of Nazism (16), which led to the occupation of many countries in Europe by Nazi Germany (17).&nbsp;In the postmodern era, yet another form of racism emerged, which was Cultural Racism. The historical speech by conservative parliamentarian Enoch Paul 1968 in Birmingham, the industrial capital of England, illustrates this form of racism. Paul predicted that a flood of bloodshed would occur in England if the immigration policies were to remain in place. In his view, those policies support the Apartheid , favouring the Black population in Britain to the white population. It is clear that this “New Racism”, as British political researcher Martin Barker put it in his famous work published in 1981 under the same name, is related to the rise of immigration to Western Europe. What differentiates this form of racism from the previous ones is that, the racist rhetoric pointed at immigrants is based on cultural differences rather than biological factors (18). Cultural racism is a discriminatory. Its discourse rejects the other insofar as they belong to a different culture, and it claims that each culture has its own unchangeable essence and that there could be no reconciliation between different cultures.&nbsp;B2. Kurds and Modernity&nbsp;It can be said that the Kurds have not yet gone through the stages of modernity and postmodernity, because they have not been able to go through the stages of history properly, and have not adapted scientific progress. For example, in Kurdish history, there has not been a period of renaissance or religious reform, nor of secularisation nor nation-state building, instead the Kurds have remained more traditional. In the first quarter of the 20th century, the occupiers of Kurdistan began to modernise. The Turks launched their political modernization through Kemalism and they built the Turkish nation-state based on Turkish nationalism. The Arabs, following the Sykes-Picot agreement, began building their Arab nation-states based on Arabic culture and ethnic identity. &nbsp;In Iran, to make up for the humiliating defeats against Russian in the 19th century, the Iranians tried to modernise the state, resulting in the emergence of Raza Shah and the Pahlavi-ruled modern state which attempted to gain sovereignty of the nation within the geopolitical territory of Iran (25).&nbsp;The First World War (1914-1918), led to the the political and social division of the Kurds, the destruction and mass murder in all parts of Kurdistan, and it is still ongoing, many of the tools of destruction used on the Kurds, are products of modernity and knowledge, especially chemical weapons and several others, so we can say that although Kurdistan has not reached modernity, but it has been a victim of the progress of science and technology, during modernity Kurdistan has been occupied and forcefully linked and made part to the occupying state, and the law has legitimised this occupation of Kurdistan.Conclusion&nbsp;Etymologically, ‘Modernity’ is derived from the old Latin ‘Modo’ and new Latin ‘Modernus’ , meaning contemporary and modern. The term modernity has a long history, it was first used in the 5th century AD to distinguish between Roman and Pagan times. As a period of history,&nbsp;modernity denotes an epoch in which ideological and spiritual boundaries were completely transformed. Modernity is the result of several historical stages like the Renaissance, Religious Reformation, The Enlightenment, and the Industrial Revolution. &nbsp;Modern transformations extended to intellectual, social, cultural, political and economic contexts.&nbsp;Additionally, Postmodernism emerged as a result of a focus on political and social ideals in the mid 20th century. In the 1960s and the 1970s, a phenomenon arose, followers of the postmodern thought denied modernity and held scepticism of any belief system.&nbsp;In the modern and postmodern eras, occupation expanded rapidly as a result of science and technology. In these periods, occupation was given a number of legal principles aimed at legitimising occupation.&nbsp;Lastly, the Kurds have not been able to reach modernity, and this as a result of the geopolitics of Kurdistan, which has become a victim of occupation and destruction, especially after the First world war. It has been divided into four parts. In the modern era, the occupation of Kurdistan has been faster and more destructive compared to its predecessors.&nbsp;

Modernity and its Impact on Western Occupation: A Study of the Kurdish Case

Instruments for the Peaceful Settlement of Iraqi-Iranian Water Disputes

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