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Origins and Historical ContextAnfal – above all else – seems to evoke a historical reference related to Kurds in northern Iraq. Etymologically, from its root, the term is derived from the Arabic origin word which signifies the meaning of profits, spoils of war, or earnings. In addition to that, the name was utilized by the Iraqis for a series of military operations that took place in different periods during the late 1980s. Analyzing the Anfal campaign requires an understanding of the concluding phases of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War; that is to say, this genocide was not only a byproduct of that conflict but rather, the conclusion of the fight on Iraq's terms provided Baghdad with the opportunity to bring to a close its long-running efforts to bring the Kurds to heel. The Iraqi regime's anti-Kurdish campaign predated the commencement of hostilities between Iran and Iraq by at least fifteen years. Anfal was also the most visible manifestation of the "special powers" handed to Ali Hassan Al-Majid – Saddam Hussein's cousin and the secretary general of Iraq's Ba'ath Arab Socialist Party's Northern Bureau. From March 29, 1987, through April 23, 1989, Al-Majid was given power similar to that of the president himself in northern Iraq, with authority over all governmental agencies. Al-Majid, known to Kurds as “Chemical Ali," was the mastermind of the Kurdish genocide. The major actors in the mass murder were the regular Iraqi Army's First and Fifth Corps, the General Security Directorate, and Military Intelligence under his direction.&nbsp; In addition to that, the Kurdish pro-government militia known as The National Defense Battalions, or ‘Jahsh’ provided critical auxiliary support. However, the combined forces of the Iraqi state's military, security, and civilian apparatus were mobilized, in Al-Majid's words: "to solve the Kurdish problem and slaughter the saboteurs”. Saddam Hussein claimed Anfal was a direct retaliation for the Kurds' support for Iran during the 1980-1988 Iraq-Iran war. It was also opportunism: Baghdad had long desired to squash Kurdish self-rule dreams and establish full Arab control over Kurdistan's oil.The campaigns of 1987-1989 were marked by the following plans and operations: mass summary executions and mass disappearances of tens of thousands of non-combatants, including large numbers of women and children, and sometimes the entire population of villages; widespread use of chemical weapons, including mustard gas and the nerve agent GB, or Sarin, against the town of Halabja and dozens of Kurdish villages. Army engineers systematically destroyed civilian objects, including several electricity substations, as well as schools, mosques, and other non-residential structures in the targeted villages; large-scale plunder of civilian property and farm animals was demolished by army personnel and pro-government militia; arbitrary detention of all peasants apprehended in "prohibited areas". Even though they were far away from their own homes and farms; illegal incarceration and warehousing continued for months in deplorable conditions in which tens of thousands of women, children, and the elderly for no reason other than their supposed sympathies for the Kurdish opposition. Hundreds of them were left to die from starvation and sickness. Years after the Anfal campaign, the skeletal remains (Figure 1) were found in different locations in Iraq – mostly in the southern parts – besides the skeletons; clothes, children’s toys, watches, shoes, and women’s accessories were also discovered. Eventually, experts began to work on the remains to identify to whom those skeletons and items belong. Yet, a huge number of the captured civilians are still missing and the only legacy that is left behind is the massive graves.&nbsp; In a stochastic fashion, individuals from the civilian population were apprehended without discernible patterns and predetermined criteria. Eventually, they had been taken to different prison camps in southern Iraq – far from their homes. For instance, Nugra Salman Prison (Figure 2) was located in the desert of the Muthanna Governorate, and Topzawa prison camp where the Iraqi army's recent attempt to reopen a former Baathist-era Iraqi military base in Kirkuk. The prison was established in Topzawa village in southern Kirkuk province, wherein thousands of Kurds, especially women, and children were uprooted. The dictatorship then transported them to the Topzawa base – a building – where males and females were separated before being sent to desert detention camps. In an interview with Kurdistan 24, Saman Ahmed – an Anfal survivor – stated: “before we arrived, more than 50 buses were here [at the base]. When we arrived, it was very crowded, so we were transferred to Tikrit”.Narrative Review:The issue of such critical race has been read by various critics through different lenses: for instance, &nbsp;Bozarslan et al. (2021) claim that during the mid-1980s, the Iraqi state intensified its campaign to seize Kurdish-held areas, adopted an Arabization policy, and launched the Anfal campaign, which included chemical attacks on Kurdish civilians, destruction of the traditional rural economy and infrastructure, forced displacement of rural Kurdish communities, summary executions, and forced disappearances. According to Kurdish accounts, 4,000 villages were devastated and 182,000 people were slain. According to Human Rights Watch, up to 100,000 people died, many of them women and children, with the chemical strike on the town of Halabja on March 16, 1988, alone killing 5,000 Kurdish residents. During the Iran-Iraq War in the 1980s, the Iranians aided Kurdish guerilla forces in their fight for independence in northern Iraq, as well as opening a new front to divide Iraqi military operations. The Iraqi military suppressed the Kurdish insurgency. However, Kurdish rebels collaborated with Iranian soldiers in attacking Iraqi military targets. In return, the Iraqi military retaliated with ground operations by army forces, aerial bombing, village devastation, concentration camps, mass executions, and chemical warfare against the Kurdish population. Iranian forces and Kurdish insurgents gained control of the Iraqi military station in Halabja in March 1988. The Iraqi Air Force launched rockets and napalm into Halabja's residential districts two days later, followed by a poison gas strike – 3,000-5,000 civilian Kurds were murdered, while 10,000 or more were severely injured. It was the most massive chemical assault since poison gas was banned during W.W.I. in 1918 (p.8).Joost (2008) states that the Anfal campaign was the conclusion of the Ba'ath regime's long-standing efforts to put an end to Kurdish ambitions for greater autonomy and independence. It occurred near the end of the Iran-Iraq war, a deadly eight-year conflict (1980-1988) that allowed Kurdish rebels to exploit a security vacuum in the north. Anfal was the regime's retaliation for what it saw as an unforgivable betrayal, along with its way of permanently resolving the Kurdish national conflict within the borders of the Iraqi state. Whitely (1994) asserts that the village of Koreme, located in the Badinan highlands of the Dohuk governorate, was one of the hundreds of Kurdish settlements that felt the scourge of the Anfal. Near the end of the campaign, 27 male peasants were brutally killed on a hill outside Koreme after returning from a futile attempt to flee into Turkey. Human Rights Watch and Physicians for Human Rights exhumed their bodies and conducted a forensic examination to identify the cause and circumstances of their deaths in late spring 1992.&nbsp;From a Totalitarian Regime to Anfal&nbsp;The term totalitarianism – primarily – is a political system in which a single ruling party or leader consolidates control and authority. Individual liberties are often suppressed, political pluralism is absent, and large state machinery is used to maintain govern over society. In other words, it is a government that theoretically allows no individual freedom and strives to submit all aspects of individual life to state control. In the early 1920s, the Italian dictator – Benito Mussolini – coined the term totalitario to describe the emerging fascist state of Italy, which he further defined as "all within the state, none outside the state, none against the state”. Totalitarianism had become synonymous with absolute and brutal single-party rule by the outbreak of W.W. II. The Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin, Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler, the People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong, and North Korea under the Kim family are all modern examples of totalitarian nations. &nbsp;This political concept has been one of the major issues which thinkers have highlighted in their works, for instance, the modern political philosopher, Hannah Arendt, investigated this subject in her The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), on the ideological foundation of totalitarianism, she begins with an introduction to the origins of the anti-Semitism historically and the Nazis’ manufactured political doctrine.&nbsp;Arendt claims that antisemitism is more than just hatred, rather, it is an ideology that authoritarian movements use as a weapon. To further rouse the populace against Jews, European nobility linked itself with conservative religious objectives and propagated antisemitic rhetorically. In exchange, nations required Jews to assimilate while also wishing for them to remain distinct. According to Arendt, all of this has driven authoritarian movements to actively use antisemitic discourse to further their aims. She goes further, explaining that Antisemitism is defined and its significance in authoritarianism is discussed. Arendt refutes various theories concerning the relationship between antisemitism and totalitarianism, claiming that antisemitism arose along with totalitarianism. She explains the history of the Jewish people in Europe, including the restrictions and benefits that come with their unique status. According to Arendt, the loss of Jewish political power while maintaining riches caused others to detest the Jewish people (1962, p. 5-9). Because of their ancestry, Jews were both sought and rejected. &nbsp;In Arendt’s context, it is fair to state that this ethnic problem related to the Anfal Campaign seems to be related to the political doctrine which led to the tragic and violent reactions from the former regime towards Kurds. The term antisemitism has a long history in which readers immediately absorb the signification within it. Strikingly, a similar conception is found in a different context – Kurdish/ Arabic identity– that is to say, the emergence of this phenomenon seemed to be invisible. Here we want to focus on this political system –– the animosity of the Nazis towards Jews assumed a different form in northern Iraq. The political prejudice against Kurds took various shapes from propaganda to using weapons, progressively, this became one of the major issues between two different nations in the same area; one is viewed as superior and the other inferior in terms of power.Similarly, Michel Foucault explains the concept of ‘biopower’ that originated historically with the transition of power forms in Western civilizations beginning in the seventeenth century, but the most dramatic transformation occurred during the nineteenth century. In other words, the sovereign's right to take or let live, symbolized by the sword, gradually gave way to society's capacity to govern life, both by caring for people's lives and by limiting it, even to the point of terminating life. This change included many power strategies and methods of managing life. According to Foucault, this new power over life, known as biopower, arose in two forms: anatomy-politics of the human body and biopolitics of the population. They were different in the eighteenth century but were later connected by a bridge in the latter centuries – a plethora of relations converged to form a coherent, new power technology. Foucault coined this term in the 1970s, to illustrate the complexities of authority and the abstractions of manufactured power, he defines biopolitics:&nbsp;The way one has tried since the eighteenth century to rationalize the problems that were posed to governmental practice by the totality of living beings constituted as a population; health, hygiene, lifespan, races, and birthrate. (p 136)In other words, biopolitics encompasses all disciplinary procedures and regulatory approaches that optimize the population while also establishing it as a new reality. And what exactly is biopower? Foucault defined biopower as a technology that, on the one hand, refers to body discipline while, on the other hand, refers to the control over this new totality of the population through certain regulatory and knowledge systems. In this framework, Foucault outlines a power technology aimed at "bodily capabilities" and "life processes" (Deuber-Mankowsky, 2008, p. 136-137). &nbsp;From this perspective, the life of Kurds was under the power of the Ba’ath regime in terms of who would live or die. The details of the Anfal operation and the steps of transporting the prisoners from one place to another and the random firing squad – the penal system – without having a legal trial, all show the means of power and discipline that were set by the government led the civilians in certain patterns. Their physical, emotional, and psychological freedoms were forsaken and buried beneath the desert sands where they were interred alive.Like Arendt and Foucault, Karl Popper examines political ideology and fascism through his well-known “The Paradox of Tolerance,” the notion illustrates the boundaries of tolerance in a democratic society. It emphasizes the dichotomy between defending individual freedom and safeguarding the democratic norms that enable that liberty. Popper contended that a tolerant society must not accept bigotry to prosper. In other words, there are some ideas or persons who want to undermine or destroy the concepts of tolerance and democracy. Allowing unfettered tolerance of intolerant ideas risks allowing those ideologies to take over or hurt society, potentially leading to the erosion of individual freedoms and the collapse of the open society. The paradox emerges from the inherent conflict between tolerant principles and the necessity to maintain such standards. If tolerance is extended to all viewpoints, including intolerant ones, a paradoxical scenario arises in which the tolerant society risks being used or destroyed by those who wish to abuse its openness and stifle opposing viewpoints (Shereikis, 2017). Popper’s theory appears its reflection on the Kurdish genocide through the tolerance of Iraqi civilians led to the tragic ending. It is essential to mention that one of the major Ba’ath’s justifications for killing Kurds was treason – they obviously demanded more tolerance for their intolerant actions against the Kurdish identity, heritage, and history. &nbsp;The Iraqi government's hostility towards the Kurdish community drove the genocidal campaigns. Once we consider the Kurds’ point of view, the contradiction of tolerance becomes clear. Due to the Iraqi regime's intolerance, Kurds demanding autonomy and acknowledgment of their cultural rights were subjected to deadly violence. The paradox stems from the question of whether a tolerant society should allow the activities of an intolerant dictatorship seeking to eradicate a certain population within its borders. From a larger standpoint, one may say that the Kurdish Anfal exemplifies the risks of unrestricted tolerance. While tolerance is a vital and necessary principle in a democratic society, it should not be given to individuals who want to undermine fundamental tolerance ideals or commit grave human rights violations.&nbsp; ConclusionThe Kurdish genocide in the 1980s has been narrated in terms of historical events that were committed against Kurds by the Ba’ath regime. In this article, we attempted to present the context of the Anfal Campaign and then illustrate the political aspect behind it through several studies by critics. In the discussion, we investigated this case in terms of race and power – these concepts seem to be major issues that have been manipulated by fascists throughout history. For this reason, we endeavored to focus on the philosophical investigation of mass murder and study its complexities through the works of Hannah Arendt, Michel Foucault, and Karl Popper, in terms of totalitarianism. As a result, political ideology appears to play the key role in constructing such manufactured ideologies – the racial divisions – the decisions on civilian life, and forge identities.&nbsp; ReferencesBozarslan, H., Gunes, C., &amp; Yadirgi, V. (Eds.). (2021). The Cambridge History of the Kurds. New York: Cambridge University Press.Arendt, H. (1962). The Origins of Totalitarianism. Cleveland and New York: The New World Publishing Company.Arnason, G. (2012). Biopower (Foucault). Retrieved from Science Direct: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/biopower#:~:text='Biopower'%20is%20the%20term%20he,political%20sphere%20of%20sovereign%20powerBa'athis and Kurds. (n.d.). Retrieved from Human Rights Watch: https://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/iraqanfal/ANFAL1.htmDeuber-Mankowsky, A. (2008). Nothing is political, everything can be politicized: On the concept of the political in Michel Foucault and Carl Schmitt. Telos, 135-161.In Pictures | Families of Anfal Victims Visit Nugra Salman Prison. (2023, May 16). Retrieved May 25, 2023, from Basnews: https://www.basnews.com/en/babat/807385Joost, H. (2008, February 3). THE 1988 ANFAL CAMPAIGN IN IRAQI KURDISTAN. Retrieved May 22, 2023, from https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/1988-anfal-campaign-iraqi-kurdistan.htmlKurdish Genocide. (n.d.). Retrieved May 23, 2023, from The Kurdish Project: https://thekurdishproject.org/history-and-culture/kurdish-history/kurdistan-genocide/Shereikis, N. (2021, November 17). Karl Popper’s Paradox of Tolerance and What It Teaches Us About Political Polarization. Retrieved from Political Empathy Project: https://www.politicalempathyproject.org/blog-posts/karl-poppers-paradox-of-tolerance-and-what-it-teaches-us-about-political-polarization. Accessed 23- 05-2023.&nbsp;Sherwani, H. (2021, October 25). Iraqi army stops plan to put Baathist-era military base used in Anfal back in operation. Retrieved May 25, 2023, from https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/26034-Iraqi-army-stops-plan-to-put-Baathist-era-military-base-used-in-Anfal-back-in-operationStory of Anfal. (n.d.). Retrieved from Kurdistan Memory Propgramme: https://kurdistanmemoryprogramme.com/story-of-anfal/ Accessed 25- 050 2023.&nbsp;totalitarianism. (2023, May 18). Retrieved from Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/topic/totalitarianism. Accessed 25- 05-2023.&nbsp;Whitley, A. (1994, July- August). The Remains of Anfal. Retrieved from Merip.org: https://merip.org/1994/07/the-remains-of-anfal/

From Totalitarianism to Genocide: The Anfal Campaign as a Dark Chapter in Kurdish History

The Importance and Challenges of Establishing the Federation Council in Iraq

An assessment of Entrepreneurship in The Kurdistan Region

IntroductionThis brief study delves into the intricate ways layered identities co-exist and evolve within the Kurdish diaspora, shaped by a complex interplay of internal and external forces—such as language, family ties, community bonds, and the cultural dynamics of the host country. By highlighting the factors that diasporic Kurds identify as contributing to the success or challenges of balancing their heritage with the identity of their adopted home, this research sheds light on the key elements that shape and preserve Kurdish identity abroad.Literature Review&nbsp;Identity may not have a &nbsp;universal definition, it is widely considered however as the collection of characteristics, beliefs, values, and experiences that make up who a person is and how they see themselves. A key concept taken from Stuart Hall’s essay "Cultural Identity and Diaspora" is that identity is not fixed but rather an ongoing process shaped by historical and cultural contexts including personal and collective experiences (Hall, 2014). Identity encompasses various aspects such as ethnicity, nationality, language, religion, and personal values for those in the diaspora, and as individuals mature both mentally and physically, these aspects may evolve, causing one’s identity to also shift over time. This evolution can lead to either greater harmony or increased tension in the coexistence of multiple identities. Renowned linguist Noam Chomsky &nbsp;recognizes that language is often the most immediate foundation in the structure of one’s identity and cognitive structure (Chomsky,1984). Language is therefore a powerful marker of identity construction for individuals of shared ethnicity and serves as a means of expressing one’s culture through communication. Benedict Anderson argues that a nation is moreover imagined as a community, a deep and horizontal fraternity that united all of its members across age, class, color, creed, gender – irrespective of actually existing divisions (Anderson, 2016). The common thread that binds ethnic groups living in diaspora apart from language is also the shared vision of a homeland - a nation. Jowan Mahmod presents the argument that diaspora Kurds have conflicting views and emotions among young diasporic Kurds, and their changed views that challenge the Kurdish perceptions of identity as a static and unified entity. Kurds are constantly reminded that their homeland is not a recognized nation, which can be seen as fueling a stronger desire to preserve their cultural identity. Mahmod also argues that diasporic populations often have tragic stories of violence in the homeland and individual experiences of genocide (Mahmod, 2019). Individual experiences, whether Kurds recall them firsthand or were exposed to their families' trauma through oral stories shared by parents or elders or through social media, news outlets, films, play a key role in shaping identity as the identity of Kurds in diaspora continues to evolve. While the process of balancing multiple identities varies from person to person, it is significant to understand these experiences to fully grasp Kurdish identity and the sense of belonging in the diaspora.&nbsp; Theoretical Framework&nbsp; Identity as a concept is defined as the set of qualities, beliefs, personality traits, appearance, and/or expressions that characterize a person or a group (Jary &amp; Jary, 2000). The etymology of the term "identity" is from the Latin noun identitas, and means an individual's mental image of themselves and their "sameness with others.”&nbsp;Cultural identity is defined as a collective and shared sense of self, rooted in common historical experiences, memories, and cultural practices. It emphasizes the sense of belonging to a unified cultural group, which gives individuals a stable sense of who they are through collective memory of their history, language, and struggles, which unites them as a group (Hall, 2014). Hall stresses that identity construction is never fixed; it evolves through time, interaction, social and political relationships, and experiences (2014).&nbsp;Diaspora refers to the dispersion of people from their homeland; as a dispersed population that shares a common origin or homeland but lives outside of it, often due to historical forces like migration, displacement, or exile (Cohen,1997).&nbsp;Belonging is a multi-layered concept that goes beyond mere membership in a community or society. Yuval-Davis (2011) emphasizes that belonging is not just about social location but also involves emotional attachment and a sense of being at home in a specific context. Her definition of belonging incorporates social, political, and personal dimensions, which can change over time and in different spaces (2011). In the context of this study, diaspora belonging refers to feeling a sense of acceptance and attachment, as well as an ability to conform to the social norms and etiquette of one’s country of residence.&nbsp; Research Methodology&nbsp;This study utilized two methods for data collection: an online survey with 46 participants and interviews with 10 individuals who were either born in or relocated to their host countries between the ages of 2 and 9. Quantitative research methods were used in this study to analyze the data collected from the survey and compile into statistical representations and pie charts. Additionally, qualitative research methods were used to illuminate the participants' experiences and the meanings they attach to the construction and perceptions of their multiple identities.&nbsp;The Results of Online Survey&nbsp; The online survey had 46 participants; 53% of which were female while 47% of which were male.&nbsp; The majority of the participant’s ages ranged between 21-37 years.&nbsp; The majority of the participants reside in Canada, America, the UK, and Norway.&nbsp; All participants of this study identified as Kurdish, however expressed that they were Kurdish from various countries - Iraq, Iran, Syria, and Turkey.&nbsp; The majority of which were from Iraqi Kurdistan, and were of Behdin (Kurmanji) and Sorani dialect speakers.&nbsp;Survey Questions&nbsp; 1. Do you have difficulty balancing your Kurdish identity in your resident country?&nbsp;2. Do you feel a strong sense of Kurdish identity despite living abroad?&nbsp;3. Do you identify as a Kurd first, or second to the nationality of your country of residence?Main Findings 58% of survey participants answered ‘Yes’ to having difficulty balancing Kurdish identity in their country of residence. While 42% answered ‘No.’&nbsp; 80% of survey participants answered ‘Yes’ to feeling a strong sense of Kurdish identity despite living abroad. &nbsp;While 20% answered ‘No.’&nbsp; 89% of survey participants answered ‘Yes’ to identifying as Kurd first rather than second to the nationality of their country of residence. While 11% answered ‘No’&nbsp; <figure id="figure-vh0yz10l4bm4i7lrq0"><img id="vh0yz10l4bm4i7lrq0" src="https://cdn.durable.co/blocks/30lHIvvJ9jwBLKSEVF3C9U36q3LO0JPLC8eUuJp0lGaxlDYRHdTxCrCkk5Gdivty.png" alt="" title="" class="object-cover bg-gray-100 " style="aspect-ratio: 16/9; object-position: center center;" data-corners="default" data-aspect="16:9" data-caption="" data-positionx="undefined" data-positiony="undefined" data-fullwidth="false" data-mce-src="https://cdn.durable.co/blocks/30lHIvvJ9jwBLKSEVF3C9U36q3LO0JPLC8eUuJp0lGaxlDYRHdTxCrCkk5Gdivty.png" data-mce-style="aspect-ratio: 16/9; object-position: center center;"></figure>Interview Results&nbsp; The 10 interview participants were asked four questions:&nbsp; Question 1: How would you describe your sense of Kurdish identity while living in the diaspora? Question 2: In what ways do you feel connected to your Kurdish heritage while living abroad? Are there moments when you feel distant from it? Question 3: Do you feel more connected to the Kurdish community, your host country's culture, or both? How do you navigate these different identities? Question 4: What factors were most influential in preserving your Kurdish identity?&nbsp; The majority of interview participants, 80%, &nbsp;described their Kurdish identity as integral to "who they are"—deeply instilled in their sense of self and a defining aspect of their overall identity. 100% of interview participants indicated that their Kurdish identity was strongly shaped by speaking Kurdish and engaging in traditions preserved by their community and elders, as well as past traumas of their families as a result of persecution, genocide, and fleeing war. Additionally, 90% of participants live in communities with a significant Kurdish population that maintain traditions such as family visitations, weddings, funeral practices, Eid customs, and more. This connection to their community allowed them to feel "connected" to their Kurdish heritage. Furthermore, 92% of participants emphasized their parents' strong desire to preserve cultural traditions as a way to instill a deep sense of Kurdish identity in their children, reminding them that they are "different" from the identity of their host country—religiously, culturally, morally, and ethnically. However, 65% of participants noted that they felt distanced from their Kurdish heritage when interacting with non-Kurdish individuals in their host countries, while 35% stated they never felt distant from their Kurdish culture. All participants, 100%, expressed that language is the most important factor in shaping and preserving their Kurdish identity. Moreover, 85% of interviewees agreed that identity is fluid and can evolve over time due to life experiences, relationships, and societal influences. Nonetheless, every participant emphasized the significant role that their Kurdish heritage played in shaping both their past and current identities. In terms of balance, 75% of participants reported that their Kurdish identity was difficult to reconcile with their host country’s culture during their younger years, particularly in elementary and high school, when they struggled to articulate aspects of their culture to non-Kurds. Additionally, 71% of participants stated that they navigate their layered identities by connecting socially with fellow Kurds and attending Kurdish events. Meanwhile, 22% reported embracing the cultural identity of their host country, and 11% of participants stated they did not experience any significant difficulties in balancing their Kurdish and host-country identities. Discussion&nbsp; While each Kurdish individual's experience in the diaspora is shaped by their unique upbringing and community, the research collected from participants in this study reveals a common thread in the construction of Kurdish identity. For the majority of participants in this study, this thread is intricately woven through the upholding of Kurdish traditions, language, and a strong sense of community; for others, their Kurdish identity serves as a simple reminder and renders little significance in the way one identifies his/her sense of self. This corroborates Anderson’s (2016) unification through imagined community theory, as many diasporic Kurds hold a shared connection as part of a larger collective. Also, Hall’s (2014) argument that identity is a shape-shifting and enduring process is underscored in this brief study. This study also highlights the significance of language as a foundational pillar in preserving Kurdish identity. Chomsky's (1984) assertion that language forms the strongest basis for both identity and cognitive development reinforces this idea, emphasizing the central role language plays in shaping one's sense of self. Nevertheless, participants in both surveys and interviews expressed a shared sentiment of feeling connected to both their host country's identity and their Kurdish identity, with the emphasis on one or the other varying depending on context—such as at school, non-Kurdish social events, or in the workplace. Multiple identities evolve and reconcile themselves through maturity, experiences, and introspection of themselves and the perception of the world around them. Kurds in the diaspora often face the challenge of reconciling multiple identities as they adapt to the culture of their host country while raising families and passing Kurdish traditions onto their children. This sense of "us" and "them," which participants emphasized their parents aimed to instill, is not viewed as a hostile juxtaposition but rather as an added dimensionality and vibrant layer to the self-identity of diasporic Kurds. The findings of this study suggest that multiple identities coexist more harmoniously as individuals mature, becoming more introspective, articulate, and comfortable in expressing their multiple identities.&nbsp;Conclusion&nbsp;The research reveals a dynamic interplay of factors that both strengthen and challenge the balancing of layered identities—specifically, the Kurdish identity and that of the host country. Elements such as language, cultural traditions, and the collective memory of trauma from displacement and conflict emerge as pivotal in shaping Kurdish identity abroad. Yet, this process is anything but uniform. Individual experiences, generational shifts, and varying levels of integration into host societies all influence how Kurds construct and express their identities in the diaspora. While many Kurds in the diaspora develop a sense of belonging and attachment to their adopted countries, the findings suggest that Kurdish identity remains a deeply ingrained aspect of their self-concept, woven alongside their connection to their adopted homeland.References&nbsp;[1] Albury, N. J., &amp; Schluter, A. A. (2021). Introduction: Reimagining language and belonging in the diaspora. Lingua, 263, Article 103157. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2021.103157" data-mce-href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2021.103157">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2021.103157</a>[2] Anderson, Benedict. 2016. Imagined Communities. London, England: Verso Books. [3] Barbosa, Eduardo. (2023). The Relationship Between Language and Identity.&nbsp;The Relationship Between Language and Identity | by CLAC VIII - 2023.1 | Medium [4] Canagarajah, S., &amp; Silberstein, S. (2012). Diaspora Identities and Language. Journal of Language, Identity &amp; Education, 11(2), 81–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348458.2012.667296 [5] Cohen, R. (1997). Global Diasporas: An Introduction. United Kingdom: UCL Press [6] García, O., Flores, N., &amp; Spotti, M. (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Language and Society. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.&nbsp; [7] Hall, Stuart.(2014). “Cultural Identity and Diaspora.” Undoing Place? &nbsp;222-237. hallculturalidentityanddiaspora.pdf (warwick.ac.uk) [8] Jary, D., &amp; Jary, J. (2000). Collins Dictionary of Sociology. United Kingdom: Harper Collins. https://books.google.no/books?id=vavLSAAACAAJ [9] Mahmod, Jowan. “New Online Communities and New Identity Making: The Curious Case of the Kurdish Diaspora.” Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies 6, no. 2 (2019) 34–43. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48710218. [10] Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved from: identity | Etymology of identity by etymonline[11] Osiatyński, Wiktor. (1984). Contrasts: Soviet and American Thinkers Discuss the Future. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Pp. 95-101. The University of California: MacMillan Press. On Language and Culture, Noam Chomsky interviewed by Wiktor Osiatynski &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; [12] Yuval-Davis, Nira (2011). The Politics of Belonging: Intersectional Contestations. United Kingdom: SAGE Publications.

Kurdish Identity and Diaspora Belonging: Balancing Multiple Identities

Introduction&nbsp;The &nbsp;Kurdistan Region, with its mountainous landscapes and fertile grounds, hosts a diverse ecosystem that sustains both human and animal populations. However, due to global climate change, the region faces challenges in conserving the land's natural resources which livelihoods and economics rely upon. The region has a prolonged history of political conflicts extending to current Turkish bombardments in its mountains, aggravating these challenges due to the impact of military activities. This article posits that the confluence of ecocidal factors, climate change and military conflict, further degrades the habitat due to pollution and deforestation, contributing to significant public health issues.&nbsp; The following article incorporates insights from previous findings regarding the effect of climate change and military conflicts on the environment and public health in the Kurdistan Region. The crucial research question we aim to delve into is: "In what ways do climate change and military conflicts impact environmental degradation and public health concerns in the Kurdistan Region?" With the convergence of environmental and political obstacles in Kurdistan, tackling this inquiry is imperative in grasping the heightened risks confronting both its residents and the natural surroundings. By exploring this intersection between climate and conflict, we aim to bridge a significant gap in existing research on the topic.&nbsp; Literature Review&nbsp;The challenges set upon this region due to climate change are exacerbated due to ongoing military conflicts (Eklund et al., 2021). Previous studies underscore how climate change is reflected in the region through irregular rainfalls, rising temperatures, and prolonged droughts, which exacerbate issues such as water scarcity and agricultural decline (‌Escribano, P. &amp; D. Pons Ganddini, 2024). The strategies adopted to cope with this dire situation, such as water conservation and livelihood diversification, highlight the interconnectedness of climate change and political disputes in the region and the repercussions on public health and the environment (Sheikh &amp; Aziz, 2024).&nbsp; Although the environmental impact of climate change has been thoroughly researched, less focus has been devoted to how warfare can exacerbate these concerns. Military conflicts, notably the prevailing Turkish military operations, perpetuate environmental degradation through forest fires, soil erosion, and pollution. As a result of these detrimental factors on the environment, cases of respiratory illnesses in Kurdistan are on an incline due to the worsening of air quality and rise in temperatures. It has been reported that the rise in respiratory diseases, like asthma and bronchitis, are linked to increased dust storms and air pollution (Mamluk &amp; Karadaghy, 2024). Nevertheless, there has been little research into the overall effects of climate change and warfare on Kurdistan's environment and public health. This study aims to bridge this gap by examining how the combination of these factors exacerbates environmental and health concerns, with the objective of demonstrating the need for efficient policy solutions in the region. Methodology&nbsp;The presented research will adopt a qualitative approach by utilizing secondary data to investigate the intersection of climate change, warfare, and public health in the Kurdistan Region. The research draws on existing studies, including peer-reviewed articles, reports, and data analysis. The sources were chosen based on relevancy to the research fields of climate change, military-implicated environmental degradation, and public health repercussions. The sources are region-specific research, crucial to illuminate vital insights characteristic to the Kurdistan Region and provide a robust structure for understanding the interlinked variables affecting the area.&nbsp; DiscussionsEnvironmental Impact of Military Conflict&nbsp;The Kurdistan Region has a long history of interplay between political instabilities and environmental obstacles that jeopardize the welfare and sustenance of its population. The ongoing Turkish armed attacks in its mountains have led to damages that extend far beyond the targeted points. These attacks have caused extensive forest fires and deforestation, posing threats to the land's biodiversity and resilience against climate change (Eklund et al., 2021). Moreover, the destruction of forests halts the absorption of carbon dioxide and releases its storage back into the atmosphere: As a result, the region is more susceptible to environmental deterioration, such as soil erosion and desertification, due to the loss of forest cover which interferes with the ecosystems and contributes to the extinction of plant and animal species (Hawramy, 2018). Furthermore, soil erosion and loss of vegetation contribute to dust storms, which in turn worsen land degradation and reduce agriculture productivity by stripping away the nutrition-rich topsoil (Hama-Aziz, 2022; Sissakian et al., 2013). The ramifications of military operations include the destruction of natural water infrastructure, disturbance of river flow, and pollution of water sources (Schillinger et al., 2020). As an example, military-grade explosives cause long-term ecological damage due to the harmful residues: Such contamination contributes to airborne and waterborne diseases (Ahmed&amp; Hussein, 2024). The combined impacts of climate change and military related damage amplify water scarcity. Irregular rainfalls and extended drought periods in turn reduce water resources and increase pollutant concentration in available sources(Schillinger et al., 2020).. Air Quality and Respiratory Health Implications&nbsp;The dual impact of military conflict and climate change significantly worsens the air quality of the region. Particulate matter is tiny particles suspended in the air and can have various sources such as vehicle emissions, industrial and construction processes, and natural sources such as dust. PM 2.5, which are 2.5 micrometers in diameter, are of particular concern since they are small enough to be inhaled deep into the lungs and trigger health problems. The region has rising levels of PM 2.5 as a result of military activities aggravating dust storms and wildfires. Especially the recurrent bombings in the mountainous areas release particulate matter and other harmful pollutants by igniting wildfires and destroying forested land. Consequently, leading to a rise in respiratory problems like asthma and bronchitis, as the fine particles penetrate deep into the lungs ‌ (Tripathi and Dhananjay, 2021; Hama-Aziz, 2022) Public Health Repercussions&nbsp;The detrimental effects of the dual crisis in the Kurdistan Region are progressively evident. Primarily, these effects are apparent in the rise in respiratory illnesses, heat-related issues, and waterborne diseases. The decline in air quality facilitated by an ensemble of dust storms and military-related pollution has culminated in a prevalence of respiratory conditions such as bronchitis, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)(Miri, et al., 2007). According to studies, concentrations of particulate matter (PM 2.5) are higher in conflict zones, enhancing these health hazards on the population. These tiny particles have the ability to bypass the blood-brain barrier and cause cognitive dysfunction. The exposure of the central nervous system to particulate matter has been linked to the development of neuropathological conditions such as stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease (Dovbeshko&amp; Borisova, 2024). Additionally, the rise in temperatures increases the risk of cardiac ailments, particularly amongst susceptible groups such as the elderly and those with pre-existing conditions (Tripathi and Dhananjay, 2021).&nbsp; Conclusion&nbsp;The aftermath of the cumulative effects of climate change and military conflict in the Kurdistan Region have led to the public health crisis due to the degradation of the environment. The habit of this region is strained to sustain life as military operations further aggravate damage. The environmental damage not only endangers the quality of soil, air, and water but also acts as a catalyst for the public health crisis, contributing to an increase in respiratory, cardiac, waterborne diseases, and other complications. In order to address the aforementioned challenges, a comprehensive resolution addressing climate adaptation and conflict mitigation would resolve the intertwined issues prompted in the region. &nbsp;First, regional government and international organizations should collaborate to initiate environmental restoration initiatives with a focus on forest restoration and soil conservation. Second, stronger parameters on emissions and pollution management in conflict zones could mitigate the health implications of particulate matter. Furthermore, implementing water conservation measures and establishing alternative water sources will help to alleviate water shortages, while improving healthcare facilities to manage climate and pollution-related illnesses ReferencesAhmed, Sanarya &amp; Hussein, Rabar. (2024). ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTIONS RELATED TO CONFLICTS IN IRAQ AND PEOPLE'S HEALTH OUTCOMES. 8. 3-14.&nbsp; Dovbeshko, Galyna, and Tatiana Borisova. "War-Derived Air Pollution Nanohybrids and Their Membrane-Active Properties." Low Temperature Physics, vol. 50, no. 3, 1 Mar. 2024, pp. 191-195. https://doi.org/10.1063/10.0024966. Accessed 30 Apr. 2024. Eklund, Lina, et al. “On the Geopolitics of Fire, Conflict and Land in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.” Remote Sensing, vol. 13, no. 8, 19 Apr. 2021, p. 1575, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13081575. ‌Escribano, P. and D. Pons Ganddini (2024). Climate change, food insecurity and human mobility: Interlinkages, evidence and action. In: World Migration Report 2024 (M. McAuliffe and L.A. Oucho, eds.). International Organization for Migration (IOM), GenFloral HAMA-AZIZ, ZANIST. “ASSESSMENT of AIR POLLUTION in KURDISTAN REGION of IRAQ.” Pollution Research, 30 June 2022, pp. 457–466, https://doi.org/10.53550/pr.2022.v41i02.011. Accessed 12 Dec. 2022. Hawramy, F. Fires and Armed Conflict Take Toll on Kurdish Flora, Fauna. Al-Monitor. 5 July 2018. Available online: https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2018/07/kurdish-forests-under-threat-of-wildfires.html (accessed on 1 February 2021). Ibraheem, Fakhri H, et al. “Environmental Issues and Concerns in Iraq and Kurdistan Region due to Various Pollutants.” the Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, 1 Jan. 2024, www.researchgate.net/publication/383258861_Environmental_Issues_and_Concerns_in_Iraq_and_Kurdistan_Region_Due_to_Various_Pollutants, https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2024_1110. Accessed 2 Nov. 2024. Maryiam Salem Mamluk, and Kamaran Amin Karadakhy. “Aggravating Factors of Asthma among Patients Visited Respiratory Center at Shar Hospital Outpatient in Sulaymaniyah-Kurdistan-Iraq.” Advanced Medical Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, 4 June 2024, pp. 19–26, https://doi.org/10.56056/amj.2024.253. Accessed 13 Sept. 2024. Miri, Abbas, et al. Dust Storms Impacts on Air Pollution and Public Health under Hot and Dry Climate. Vol. 2(1), no. 1, 1 Jan. 2007, www.researchgate.net/publication/238086966_Dust_Storms_Impacts_on_Air_Pollution_and_Public_Health_under_Hot_and_Dry_Climate/citations. Othman, Nasih, et al. Environmental Health Assessment in Sulaymaniyah City and Vicinity. 10 Apr. 2017, www.researchgate.net/publication/319493592_Environmental_Health_Assessment_in_Sulaymaniyah_City_and_Vicinity. Schillinger, Juliane, et al. “Water in War: Understanding the Impacts of Armed Conflict on Water Resources and Their Management.” WIREs Water, vol. 7, no. 6, 27 Aug. 2020, wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wat2.1480, https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1480. Sheikh, Mohammed, and Shuokr Qarani Aziz. “Issues of Water and Climate Change in the Kurdistan Region and Iraq. A Review Study.” ResearchGate, unknown, 29 Aug. 2024, www.researchgate.net/publication/384051753_Issues_of_Water_and_Climate_Change_in_the_Kurdistan_Region_and_Iraq_A_Review_Study. Accessed 2 Nov. 2024. Sissakian, Varoujan K., et al. “Sand and Dust Storm Events in Iraq.” Natural Science, vol. 05, no. 10, 2013, pp. 1084–1094, https://doi.org/10.4236/ns.2013.510133. Accessed 1 May 2019. ‌Tripathi, Dhananjay. (2021). Particulate Matter and Human Health. 10.5772/intechopen.100550.&nbsp;

The Impact of Climate Change and Military Conflict on the Environment and Public Health in the Kurdistan Region

Introduction: The environment and its issues have become an active part of state policies, and even everyday people's conversations. This is rooted in the reality that the environment regulates the lives of humans and other living beings, as it provides their needs and the foundations for their existence and development. Therefore, &nbsp;all attempts and plans made to protect the environment from any developments, are parallel to the survival of humans and other creatures. (1)&nbsp; "The environment, in its broad sense, refers to the geography that organizes the life of living beings and provides the foundation for their existence, development, and the fulfillment of their needs. The living beings interact with nature and attempt to adapt to it” (2).&nbsp; While living creatures have the ability to adapt to the conditions brought on by new events, some scientists and cosmologists believe and state that the destruction to the environment, caused by pollution, has reached an irreversible stage, and our existence in these environments is heading towards an inevitable natural end (3).&nbsp; The selfish attitudes, short-sightedness and greed of individuals, companies and governments, and the sacrifice of public interests for their own private ones is the main cause of environmental pollution and global warming (4).&nbsp;<blockquote> “Plastic waste is one of the most dangerous environmental issues, &nbsp;threatening life on land and marine life. While natural ecosystems already suffer from major issues like acid rain, agricultural degradation caused by pesticides, and chemical pollution. Countries have largely attempted to reduce their plastic production"&nbsp;</blockquote>Environmental pollution refers to those ecological changes and disruptions that take place in natural ecosystems. As a result, threats emerge that directly and indirectly harms all facets of life on earth (5).&nbsp; Types of Plastics used in Food Packaging Industry: The components of plastic used in the production of food and medicine containers vary. These components can be used alone or mixed with other ones. The most important of these components are:1. Low-density polyethylene: Used in making most containers for hot food. It sticks together when heated and is commonly referred to as plastic containers. (Figure 2) 2. High-density polyethylene: Used in household items, water pipes, and probes. It can also be used for storing sterilized foods. This component is distinguishable as it can prevent moisture and remain soft when frozen at temperatures below -5°C. 3. Polyethylene terephthalate: This type can withstand high temperatures up to 300°C, is impermeable to moisture and gasses, is transparent, and highly resistant to organic solvents. It's used for storing potable water, frozen meats, and other foods. Some water bottling plants prefer this type and use it instead of polyvinyl chloride.4. Polyvinyl chloride: This type of plastic is unaffected by grease and is used in food container production. It has high moisture resistance, and its rigid type is used in making containers for edible oils, drinking water, concentrated fruit juices, fermented foods, olives, and many other items due to its high resistance to moisture, fats, and gasses. 5. Polycarbonate: This is a type of plastic made from bisphenol. It has strong resistance to breakage, chemicals, and weather. It's transparent and rigid, used in making household items, baby pacifiers and bottles. However, doubts about its suitability have recently emerged (6).&nbsp; Plastic pollution in United Nations data: According to data from the United Nations and environmental organizations:- About one million water bottles are bought every minute worldwide.- The use of plastic bags reaches 5 trillion annually.- Half of the plastic products are made for single use.Currently, 300 million tons of plastic waste are produced annually (this amount equals the weight of humans on Earth). Scientists believe that since the 1950s, humans have produced about 8.3 billion tons of plastic, 60% of which has been discarded into nature. 99% of produced plastic is made from chemicals derived from oil, natural gas, and coal. If this continues, by 2050, plastic production will account for 20% of oil-dependent industries (7). &nbsp;Marine plastic pollution affects 800 species of animals through ingestion, starvation, suffocation, entanglement, and drowning. Plastic waste kills about one million seabirds and 100,000 fish and other animals annually.&nbsp; Waste from cities amounts to thousands or millions of tons of waste, and effectively getting rid of this waste is still a very complex problem. Often, residents burn their waste, producing gasses with several harmful components that affect the population, plants, and animals. Particularly, city waste contains several new types that didn't exist before, and the most dangerous of all is plastic and its emissions when burned (8).&nbsp;In the 1990s, plastic waste reached three times that of twenty years earlier, but at the beginning of the twenty-first century, plastic production increased compared to forty years before.&nbsp; Main sources of environmental pollution by plastic in Kurdistan Firstly, In the Kurdistan Region, the culture of picnicking and traveling to nature is common, especially during springs and summers. During these trips, disposable eating utensils such as plates, cutlery, glasses, tablecloths, water bottles, and drinking straws are discarded in nature in very large quantities, polluting the environment. Disposing of this waste becomes a great danger to the lives of animals and the environment. Secondly, Homes are a major source of this plastic waste. A family of four members throws away a large bag of empty water bottles and disposable tablecloths daily, in addition to shampoo bottles, cosmetics and cleaning products, children's toys, and even various household appliances. Thirdly, Second-hand markets in Kurdistan can be seen as a source of plastic, as many of the old plastic items in large bales are useless. Pishtiwan, one of the household goods shopkeepers in the Langa market, doesn't hide that one of the reasons for the high prices of these goods is that most of them are discarded and useless. "Every shipment we receive, if it's 80 kilos, about 20 to 25 kilos are for disposal." (9).&nbsp; Conclusion: Plastic is:- Cheap- Long-lasting- Easy to produce- Lightweight All these characteristics that are known as plastic attributes are both its strengths and weaknesses. Plastic has direct and indirect effects on marine and terrestrial ecosystems, and at the same time, the microplastics consumed by fish and animals end up on human tables (10).&nbsp; Recommendations:&nbsp; If it's believed that big changes start with individuals (11), there are a set of guidelines that can reduce the likelihood of increasing plastic waste and environmental pollution: - Reducing or eliminating the use of plastic bags and replacing them with cloth or paper bags.- Using reusable water bottles in the water bottling industry.&nbsp;- Not using plastic straws, which may seem simple but straws are one of the items that cannot be recycled. There is currently a campaign to reduce straws, and big companies like Starbucks and McDonald's are among the leading companies of this campaign.&nbsp;- Kitchen utensils should not be plastic; this can be achieved by using plastic alternatives such as glass and other materials.- Carefully selecting clothes and personal hygiene items, including toothpaste and cosmetics in general. References1. Naqshbandi, Azad Muhammad Amin Naqshbandi, Environmental Geography, 2017, p. 31 2. Naqshbandi, Azad Muhammad Amin, Ibid, p. 13 3. Barzanji, Siddiq Sheikh Mahmoud, Human Impact on Environmental Pollution, First Edition, 2001, p. 7 4. Naqshbandi, Azad Muhammad Amin, Global Warming and Its Impact on the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, Roshnbiri Press, Erbil, 2008, p. 4 5. Barzanji, Siddiq Sheikh Mahmoud, Same previous source, p. 52 6. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332514012_alblastyk_wdrjt_tlwythh_alaghdhyt 7. (1) Plastic Pollution | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (unesco.org)&nbsp; &nbsp;(2) Plastic Pollution: A Global Danger Killing One Person Every Half Minute? (annabaa.org) 8. Abdul-Munim Balba', Environmental Pollution is a Global Problem Threatening Humans, Narin Press, 2013, p. 123 9. Researcher's interview with a second-hand market seller 10. Five Things You Can Do to End Plastic Pollution (worldbank.org)

The Growing Threat of Plastic Pollution: Impact, Challenges, and Sustainable Solutions

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