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Nomadism is a part of Kurdish society, and if we look at ancient Kurdish history, we discover that much of the Kurdish nation traces its origins to nomadic tribes and families. Kurdistan, due to its geographic attributes, has historically been and remains one of the best locations for the nomadic lifestyle. Two types of environments, on which the nomadic tradition is based, have existed in Kurdistan. The first is (Garmian) meaning warm regions, inhabited during the colder seasons and the second is (Kwestan), referring to colder regions inhabited during the hotter months. According to their ways of life, nomads have developed a culture of their own. Their ways of life and culture are distinguishable from an urban or rural lifestyle. The art of weaving or embroidery is one of the strong cultural attributes practiced by the nomads. That is not to say that cities or villages do not have their weaving traditions, only to say that the nomadic embroidery differs from theirs.Accordingly, in academia, weaving is divided into three categories: Urban, Rural, and Nomadic. In this paper, we are only concerned with the nomadic tradition. Of the three types of weaving referenced, nomadic weaving is the most relevant to the Kurds, as it is the type that has been passed down to us the most, and thus gives us the most insight. Weaving refers to anything hand-woven. Weaving, in nomadic societies, was not seen as a commodity or an exchangeable good, because woven products were created as tools needed in daily life. Therefore analyses of nomadic weaving traditions must not solely be conducted through an economic lens.From a historical perspective, nomadic weaving has been influenced by several factors:- Life conditions - The central role of women - Space and Time - Celebrations, Joy, Festivities and Sorrows&nbsp; - Ideas and Beliefs Nomads actively seek locations wherein it is spring, and are thus referred to as 'A society of Eternal Spring'. As the climate gets hotter, nomads travel to cool places, and as the weather turns cold, nomads head to warmer regions. In essence, nomads always live in verdant areas during springtime. This practice is rooted in their lifestyle which depends on animals. Nomads seek pastures for their animals to graze on.The nomadic color palette represents joy and harmony, which distinguishes them from urban or rural handicrafts. Nomadic conditions have influenced their weaving practices. To illustrate, their rugs, kilims, and carpets have been primarily conceived in rectangular, long squares, or triangular shapes to fit into the nomads' tents. Similarly, traversing cold regions and hot regions has made it so that the nomads' color palette is largely warm-toned. Likewise, the wood on which the carpets are woven is flat and must be placed on the ground, as the wooden planks cannot fit into the tents due to the tents' small width and height. This also makes it so their wooden planks are placed vertically on the ground, making it easier to transport them as well. Even so, the nomadic lifestyle has not been easy without weaving. Without weaving, nomadism has been challenging. Weavers have hand-produced everything, from clothing to rugs to tents. This culture of weaving among nomads exists for several reasons. Firstly, nomads are far away from economic centers and modern financial exchanges. Additionally, the lack of rapid transportation, the relationship of nomads to nature, and the abundance of wool are factors that differently influence the nomadic way of life. Handicrafts were used in daily life, which is why their variety ranges from belts, rugs, ropes, and curtains to products made for aesthetic purposes. Most of the nomadic handicrafts are made by nomad women. In contrast to women, we could say that men had a much smaller role in weaving handicrafts. As such, these handicrafts are the carriers of women's spirits and feelings, thus we perceive that women have interlaced cultural sentiments and beliefs in these works.From ancient times to the present, it is women who have been directly able to practice and preserve weaving; when researchers explore this topic, they must consider this fact and discuss the context, beliefs, social reality, and especially the women of this culture that produce such handicrafts. The handicrafts are the products of a society's conscience, meaning that, any event that has occurred within an era, any belief, religion, or idea has been symbolically expressed in the woven works. Indeed, the weaver in a nomadic society does not begin to weave a rug carpet, or any handicraft without a design concept in mind. Additionally, sometimes the weaver designs something driven by a belief that has been passed down from centuries prior or a belief that is prevalent at the time of crafting.The majority of the designs in the handicrafts, especially those of nomads, are not simply descriptive or primitive designs. Rather, the handicrafts are driven from designs that have been passed down much like our oral literature; face to face, mouth to mouth. Weaving has been passed down from the weaver to those who learn from them. Or, the designs are the products of a mind, a feeling, a belief of a time in which the weaver existed. That is why, in the academic literature on handicrafts, it is called 'The Thought of Embroidery' about the priority of beliefs and thoughts, with less attention paid to a sense of design. Nomadic handicrafts are not lacking in color, rather, the geographies inhabited by nomads are limited in the types of foliage from which nomads could extract pigments. Also, nomads were far from urban centers so they could not purchase pigments to use in their products. That is why, each tribe used colors and pigments depending on which warm or cool region they were inhabiting in a specific period. In this regard, experts recognize and categorize weavers by their tribe. Weavers from tribes crafted their works according to their standards, traditions, culture, needs, and geography, using their specific colors, methods, and motifs.In recent years, nomads have been under the influence of global changes, economic progress, and increased trade in their areas. As a result, their cultural and traditional spirit has been dulled to a certain extent. The nomads' neighboring cities and villages produce handicrafts requested by merchants. So, handicrafts have primarily become a commodity, not so much a part of nomads' daily lives. As of now, the number of nomads has decreased and unfortunately, the rate of their local production is also gradually decreasing. Even the usage of handcrafted tents is on the decline among nomads. Handicrafts, due to negligence, have fallen under adverse modern influences and are becoming less creative overall. That is why, a great responsibility which we must shoulder is to recognize the importance of that which has been passed down to us and to preserve this essential part of our culture and prevent its disappearance. We must preserve it and pass it down to future generations. The responsibility we bear in this situation is to preserve this part of our culture by any means, whether it is through research and opening museums, film-making, documentaries, archival work, and any other means available to us.Unfortunately, as of now, there is no visible cultural institution or museum in Kurdistan that could make a feasible plan for the preservation of these handicrafts in the future. We must find joy in the work of preserving these handicrafts for future generations, so they can make use of them. The current conditions faced by Kurdish traditions and culture require thorough plans and programs that must be implemented before the culture fades entirely. Our society and youth must be made aware of their own culture so that their perceptions have intellectual depth and they take on the task of cultural preservation in the face of the hegemony imposed on our culture. In academic centers, plans must be made to raise awareness and encourage preservation. Advantage should be taken of research conducted by experts, and museums should structurally work on this subject and coordinate with experts. Alarmingly, the majority of Kurdish handicrafts are not serving the Kurdish economy, nor are they in our archives or museums. Rather, they are sold cheaply and fill foreign markets where they are stripped of their cultural identity. As of now, when we are holding this discussion, our neighboring countries' economies rely on handicrafts, especially artificial rugs or carpets. It has been many years now that specialized departments dedicated to the systematic study of cultural arts have opened in universities. In most European countries, in museums, shops, and markets, one could find Kurdish handicrafts that are neglected and cheapened among ourselves.Finally, any topic that we have briefly covered is worthy of being investigated and analyzed thoroughly, requiring devoted time for us to acquire a more comprehensive understanding of Kurdish culture, so as to prevent it from being misrepresented elsewhere. As such, I hope that hereinafter, people will try to preserve and revive handicrafts and Kurdish culture. References:&nbsp;مێژووی هونەر و کولتوور &nbsp;بەرگی شەشەم - Arthur Upham Popeکولتووری عەشیرەکان بەشی کوردستان -Ali Nozarpour &nbsp;&nbsp;فەرشە کوردیەکان - Shirin Souresrafil&nbsp;کۆڕسکەری(تەونکەر) کوردی، وێنەێک لە هزری خۆی - &nbsp;Masoud Rahimiکاریگەری کولتوور و کۆمەلگا-ئایدیای کولتوور - &nbsp;Terry Eagleton

Nomadic Weaving: On The Importance of Preserving Kurdish Handicrafts

Introduction&nbsp;Modernity was an opposition to its predecessor. Rationality, the belief in the supremacy of human reason were core beliefs of Modernity. Therefore, various social, philosophical, economic, and political ideas appeared in forms of governance as well. Occupation was&nbsp;expanded and accelerated, especially by the highly industrialised states. In the era of modernity, the processes of occupation and colonisation were supported by science and technology, with the aim of legitimising their occupation. Research question: the main question in this paper is, What is the relationship between Modernity and the Western Occupation process? &nbsp;To what is modernity attributed? How has modernity been defined?&nbsp;Research significance and choice of the title: the importance and value of the research lies in the fact that we have tried to explain in a precise and scientific manner the causes and the nature of the emergence of modernity, and that’s based on many books and articles and specialised publications related to our topic. &nbsp;Research Aims: the aim of this paper is to present the reasons for the emergence of modernity and the nature of its formation, to investigate and analyse the event that led to its emergence, and to explain the principles and the reasons for its emergence and the attitude of the occupier states. To investigate this by focusing on the stages of modernity in occupation has been one of our most important aims.&nbsp;Research methodology: the methodology used in this study is the descriptive and deductive analytic method. For research on events, we have relied on several sources, such as books in various languages, articles, and other publications.&nbsp;Research structure: this paper consists of two main parts, in the first part (the concept of Modernity and the history of its emergence) we have divided it into two sections. Therein, the concept of Modernity is defined. The second part sheds light on the History and the emergence of Modernity and Postmodernity. In the second section (modernity and postmodernity and occupation) we have emphasised on the process of occupation in the times of modernity and postmodernity. In addition, the absence of modernity in Kurdish history along with the Kurdish occupation in the modern era have been discussed.&nbsp; The concept of modernity and the history of its emergenceA1. The concept of Modernity&nbsp;The concept of modernity was first used by Quijano Anibal, who outlined the political objectives behind this concept within a broad definition. The concept was later developed and emphasised upon by Walter Mignolo. On the relationship between the concepts of Modernity and Coloniality, both scholars believe that both concepts are interconnected and are two sides of the same coin, they claim that modernity aims to accomplish the goals of colonialism albeit in a new manner. &nbsp;Also, according to the De-colonialist school of thought, modernity is the dark side of colonialism, using new methods to alter violent colonial agenda and framing it in a new context (1).&nbsp;The conflict between the Old and New, originating in Post-mediaeval or Renaissance Europe, is primarily a concept in science, technology, philosophy, art, architecture, and related fields. Modernism and Modernity are two different concepts, modernism is an external remnant of Western civilization (2). &nbsp;The origin of the term modernity goes back to (Modo) from ancient Latin and (Modernus) from new Latin, which means recent, which is also translated as contemporary. &nbsp;The term modernity has a long history. In its Latin form, it was first used in the 5th century AD to differentiate between Roman and Pagan times (3).&nbsp;A2. Definition of Modernity&nbsp;Modernity, like most concepts in the human sciences, does not fit in a single static definition and it has several definitions and interpretations, sometimes depending on the era. Some of the definitions are:French sociologist Alain Touraine claims that modernity is not only the passage of time and a simple change, but it is in essence the diffusion of the products of human intellectual activity and the products of other scientific, technological, and administrative activities. Modernity places science at the centre of social life, replacing the occult or the metaphysical mentality (4).&nbsp; Modernity is a revolution for a man-centric and reason-centric society, that is modernity is the historical period in which man becomes the central subject of life in all spheres and the human mind is seen as a trustworthy instrument which gives direction to man (5).&nbsp; Modernity is the logic of a new worldview, modernity means living in a world that is different from the old one, and therefore it must be treated with different methodologies (6).&nbsp;The Rise of ModernityRegarding the rise of modernity, there are different views, some trace it to the beginning of the industrial revolution in Europe, while others associate it with the Enlightenment in the 18th century, some others associate it with Martin Luther’s renaissance and reformation (7).&nbsp;The rise of modernity can be explained within four main contexts, because modernity came to being as a process that lasted a few centuries (8). They are the following:First; Renaissance: caused an exchange of ideas and culture and art which eventually led to humanism. The end of the Christian crusades and the return of the soldiers from the battlefields and the telling of the advancements of the outside world in comparison to Europe, which was similar to a prison because of the strength of religious institutions, caused an expansion of trade and and the opening of the doors of Europe to the outside world (8).&nbsp;Second; Religious reform: the cause of religious pluralism and the decline of catholic fundamentalism. It reduced the influence of the catholic church as the main political and economical power (9).&nbsp;Third; the enlightenment and the age of reason: this was the cause of the scientific revolution and the decline of religious dogmatisms. The concept of enlightenment dates to the beginning of the 18th century, it was an intellectual movement that attempted to create a space for the development and reception of new sciences in a logical way (10). Generally speaking, the characteristics of enlightenment are as follows:&nbsp;- The belief in progress. - The belief in the centrality of the human mind, and, the perception of reason as the only means to resolve issues.&nbsp; - The equation of reason to freedom, and, emphasising on reason as an instrument for social progress.&nbsp; - Humanism, meaning that one prioritises and comprehends enlightenment, as a result of them developing their cognitive capacities.&nbsp; -Emphasis on truth as a systemic foundation of knowledge, and focalizing the attainment of truth as a project.&nbsp; &nbsp;-A clear opposition to religion.&nbsp; -In politics, the defence of the natural rights of man by law and government establishment of a system that prevents the violation of power (11).&nbsp;Fourth; The Industrial Revolution, A product of economic and technological developments.&nbsp;One of the consequences of modernity was the rationalisation of Society and Science. Additionally, Science was separated from Metaphysics, the Scientific Method rose in favour of dogmatism. Lastly, Reason was seen as the ultimate judge in every field, and this led to a rational (calculating) approach to life. Control is another consequence. The goal of modernity was to dominate all intentions, instincts, opinions, and behaviours that do not stem from reason; that is to control not only nature but Man himself, to control society and ultimately life itself.&nbsp;The rise of the secular state, and the spread of secularism in all spheres of life. The loss of freedom. The enlightenment postulated the reason-freedom equation, which proposes that as rationality increases, so does freedom. In this respect,&nbsp; Hegel believed that freedom is attained through understanding fate, the more power over fate through knowledge and reason (rationality) the more freedom increases. (20).&nbsp;Science and technology are considered to be of the most important fields of modernity and postmodernity, although modernity only includes the seven major industrial nations that govern the world namely, The United Kingdom, France, Canada, Italy, Germany, and Japan (21). These countries have been able, through technology, to project their power onto most of the world.&nbsp; B. Modernity and Occupation&nbsp;B1. Modernity and RacismModernity created fertile grounds for the rise of racist ideologies. Modern ethics were driven by scientific rationale, just as the ethics of premodern societies were driven from religion or mythologies. Thus, &nbsp;the theory of racism had to take on a scientific form as a disguise. Indeed, that was the task that ethnologists, linguists, and humanistic psychologists undertook in the early 19th century (15).&nbsp;The 19th century is known for seeking scientific methods and evidence to prove superiority and difference between the human races. As a result, several researches appeared such as the one conducted by &nbsp;Scottish scientist Robert Knox, on the shape of the human skull. Knox proposed that the white man’s skull is more round and of higher pedigree in comparison to the black man’s skull, which is longer and closer in shape to an animal's. Furthermore, Ernest Renan’s supposed linguistic evidence claimed that the mind of the Aryan race is superior to the Semitic mind. Scientific racism reached its peak with the rise of Nazism (16), which led to the occupation of many countries in Europe by Nazi Germany (17).&nbsp;In the postmodern era, yet another form of racism emerged, which was Cultural Racism. The historical speech by conservative parliamentarian Enoch Paul 1968 in Birmingham, the industrial capital of England, illustrates this form of racism. Paul predicted that a flood of bloodshed would occur in England if the immigration policies were to remain in place. In his view, those policies support the Apartheid , favouring the Black population in Britain to the white population. It is clear that this “New Racism”, as British political researcher Martin Barker put it in his famous work published in 1981 under the same name, is related to the rise of immigration to Western Europe. What differentiates this form of racism from the previous ones is that, the racist rhetoric pointed at immigrants is based on cultural differences rather than biological factors (18). Cultural racism is a discriminatory. Its discourse rejects the other insofar as they belong to a different culture, and it claims that each culture has its own unchangeable essence and that there could be no reconciliation between different cultures.&nbsp;B2. Kurds and Modernity&nbsp;It can be said that the Kurds have not yet gone through the stages of modernity and postmodernity, because they have not been able to go through the stages of history properly, and have not adapted scientific progress. For example, in Kurdish history, there has not been a period of renaissance or religious reform, nor of secularisation nor nation-state building, instead the Kurds have remained more traditional. In the first quarter of the 20th century, the occupiers of Kurdistan began to modernise. The Turks launched their political modernization through Kemalism and they built the Turkish nation-state based on Turkish nationalism. The Arabs, following the Sykes-Picot agreement, began building their Arab nation-states based on Arabic culture and ethnic identity. &nbsp;In Iran, to make up for the humiliating defeats against Russian in the 19th century, the Iranians tried to modernise the state, resulting in the emergence of Raza Shah and the Pahlavi-ruled modern state which attempted to gain sovereignty of the nation within the geopolitical territory of Iran (25).&nbsp;The First World War (1914-1918), led to the the political and social division of the Kurds, the destruction and mass murder in all parts of Kurdistan, and it is still ongoing, many of the tools of destruction used on the Kurds, are products of modernity and knowledge, especially chemical weapons and several others, so we can say that although Kurdistan has not reached modernity, but it has been a victim of the progress of science and technology, during modernity Kurdistan has been occupied and forcefully linked and made part to the occupying state, and the law has legitimised this occupation of Kurdistan.Conclusion&nbsp;Etymologically, ‘Modernity’ is derived from the old Latin ‘Modo’ and new Latin ‘Modernus’ , meaning contemporary and modern. The term modernity has a long history, it was first used in the 5th century AD to distinguish between Roman and Pagan times. As a period of history,&nbsp;modernity denotes an epoch in which ideological and spiritual boundaries were completely transformed. Modernity is the result of several historical stages like the Renaissance, Religious Reformation, The Enlightenment, and the Industrial Revolution. &nbsp;Modern transformations extended to intellectual, social, cultural, political and economic contexts.&nbsp;Additionally, Postmodernism emerged as a result of a focus on political and social ideals in the mid 20th century. In the 1960s and the 1970s, a phenomenon arose, followers of the postmodern thought denied modernity and held scepticism of any belief system.&nbsp;In the modern and postmodern eras, occupation expanded rapidly as a result of science and technology. In these periods, occupation was given a number of legal principles aimed at legitimising occupation.&nbsp;Lastly, the Kurds have not been able to reach modernity, and this as a result of the geopolitics of Kurdistan, which has become a victim of occupation and destruction, especially after the First world war. It has been divided into four parts. In the modern era, the occupation of Kurdistan has been faster and more destructive compared to its predecessors.&nbsp;

Modernity and its Impact on Western Occupation: A Study of the Kurdish Case

Instruments for the Peaceful Settlement of Iraqi-Iranian Water Disputes

Amedspor: A Contested Field for Kurdish Identity and Peacebuilding

IntroductionKurdistan uezd, colloquially known as Red Kurdistan (Kurdistana Sor) was organized as an ''uezd'' meaning an autonomous administration, established by the Soviet Union in Azerbaijan from 1923 to 1929. Its capital and administrative center was Lachin; it included the towns of Kalbajar, Kubatli, and Zangelan and the administrative subdivisions of Karakushlak, Koturli, Murad Khanli, and Kurd-haji. Kurdistan uezd comprised an area about half the size of Lebanon (McDowall: 492). The administration was home to an almost entirely Kurdish population, according to Amoev and Mosaki, the majority of Kurds in Azerbaijan, who formed the vast majority of Kurds in the USSR, lived on Kurdistan uzed territory in 1926. Education, broadcasting, and publishing were conducted in Kurdish.Kurdistana Sor: Kurdish Autonomy in the Soviet CaucasusKurdistan uezd, the zenith of the Kurdish experience in the soviet Caucasus, came about in the greater context of the Soviet nation-building program, one of the operations of which was the Leninist policy of indigenization or nativization (Korenizatsiia), announced in 1923. Korenizatsiia aimed to reduce hostilities and the splintering of national minorities by integrating them into burgeoning Soviet structures. Yuri Slezkine, a Russo-American Sovietologist has described the policy as "the most extravagant celebration of ethnic diversity that any state had ever witnessed." Kurds formed one of over 100 recognized nationalities in the Soviet polity. Professor J. Otto Pohl describes Korenizatsiia concisely:<blockquote>&nbsp;“Korenizatsiia officially started in 1923 and sought to promote the Sovietization of non-Russian nationalities by supporting their national development within a socialist framework. This included support for educational and cultural institutions in their native languages as well as policies to increase their membership in Soviet state and party organs and among industrial workers (Pohl, 2017: 32).&nbsp;</blockquote>In practice, Korenizatsiia meant the central promotion of native languages in education, official and cultural institutions, and the designation of national territories for minorities. Members of minority groups were also trained and placed into cadres, industries, and Soviet-state party organs. These institutions could be a medium of national expression, but within a socialist framework. The formula was nationalist in form, and socialist in content.&nbsp; The granting of national rights, permitting minorities to preserve their identity and language was underpinned by Lenin's belief that there existed a ''good'' nationalism among oppressed nations who simply longed for freedom, in contrast with the ''bad nationalism'' of imperialist nations. The Bolshevik revolutionaries inherited the Tsarist empire, which according to Lenin was ''the prison-house of nations''. To prevent the rise of Russian chauvinism which could push minorities to seek independence, Lenin’s policies turned away from Russification and leaned into Sovietization. As a result, briefly, Kurds were granted autonomy. This indigenization policy served to 'contain' the threat of nations attempting to break away from the Soviet Union. Kurdistan uezd existed until 1929, the year that the sixth Azerbaijani Congress of Soviets reformed administrative structures. Consequently, all uezds were absorbed into okrugs which were bigger administrative units. However, an even bigger administration bearing the name of Kurdistan came about. In May 1930, ''Kurdistan Okrug'' was carved out of the Nagorno-Karabakh Okrug, again its center was Lachin, and the territory extended to the Soviet-Iranian border. Kurdistan Okrug was abolished in July 1930. A region entitled Kurdistan was not created again, and the circumstances of Kurds in the Soviet Union evolved differently in &nbsp;Azerbaijan and Armenia.&nbsp;After the dissolution of the Kurdistan Okrug, Kurdish classes and publications resumed from 1931 to 1936 in Azerbaijan. The efforts were however insufficient, according to Yilmaz (2014), by 1938 only 808 students had received some Kurdish language education in 12 schools. The demography of Kurds was changed as well, the 1926 census listed 41,193 Kurds in Azerbaijan while the 1939 census listed only 6,005 (Amoev and Mosaki, 18, 32). This decrease in the official numbers occurred primarily due to the identification of people previously listed as Kurds in 1926 as Azeris in 1939. Thus, it is unverifiable how many Kurds were incorporated into the Bolshevik Republics but 200,000 to 300,000 is the general estimate. (McDowall:491). In Azerbaijan, many Kurds assimilated into the Azeri culture, due to the passage of time, political chauvinism, or the similarities in cultures and beliefs. Still, even during the existence of Kurdistan uezd, only 17% of the estimated 41,000 Kurds in Azerbaijan considered Kurdish to be their mother tongue (Ibid). According to Yilmaz, in Kurdistan Uezd , ''only 3,123 of them spoke Kurdish'' (Yilmaz, 2014: 813) while the majority spoke Azeri.Subsequent Policies and Their Aftermath&nbsp;By the late 1930s and early 1940s, policies of ethnic cleansing replaced indigenization. Kurds were no longer categorized as a small nation but as an enemy nation, subject to assimilation (Leezenberg, 2015: 756). The Kurds were represented as feudal, backward, illiterate, religious fanatics. Additionally, Sheikh Said was 'considered to be an agent of imperialism' (Yılmaz, 2014: 808, 810). In 1937, more than 1,000 Kurdish families were deported. In 1944, eve more Kurds were deported to Kazakhstan and Central Asia (Pohl, 2017: 32). Martin (2001,313) partially attributed the ethnic cleansing policies to Soviet xenophobia. After Stalin’s death in 1953, ‘korenizatsiia’ was revived in the USSR but Kurdish cultural activities or autonomous structures did not resume in Azerbaijan. In contrast, Kurds in Armenia were part of great literary and cultural developments (Leezenberg, 2015: 757). &nbsp;Kurdish intellectuals and writers of the Former Soviet Union contributed greatly to the development of the Kurmanji dialect and literature. The Latin Kurdish alphabet organized by Miqdad Bedirkhan was improved upon by Aisor Margulov and Erebe Shemo in 1927. Textbooks, folklore and children's collections, and the newspaper "Riya Teza '' (New Path) were published in Yerevan. Publishing and education in the 1930s were led by Kurdish Yezidi intelligentsia, such as; Casimê Celîl, Qanatê Kurdo, Heciyê Cindî, and Emînê Evdal (Yüksel, 2011: 309–18). Additionally, the initial Kurdish novels originated from Armenia. The first Kurdish novel, ''Siwane Kurmanca'' was written by Erebe Shemo and published in Yerevan in 1935. Other Kurdish novels were written by Eliyê Evdirehman's (Xatê Xanîm, 1959) and Dê (Mother, 1965), Heciyê Cindî's Hewarî (Cry, 1967) and Gundê Mêrxasa (The Village of the Courageous, 1968), and Seîdê Îbo's Kurdên Rêwe in 1981. Also, Radio Yerevan, managed by Casime Celil, broadcasted and archived Kurdish plays and songs of dengbej while the Kurdish language was banned in Turkey and other nation-states; the radio allowed many Kurds to learn Kurdish.&nbsp;Kurdish theater also developed significantly in the USSR. In the 1920s, cultural actors in Armenia like Hakob Ghazaryan and Ahmedi Mirzai &nbsp;staged Kurdish plays like Mîrazî's Zemanê Çûyî (The Time Passed) and Lazo's Gustîl (Ring) and Qelen (Dowry). This Kurdish theater group performed in Tbilisi and Armenian villages. By the 1930s, Kurdish plays were printed in Armenia. Those included Qutiya Dû-Dermanan (Medicine Box, 1934) by Hecîyê Cindî (1909–90), Zemanê Çûyî (1935) by Ahmedê Mîrazî and Reva Jinê (The Abduction of a Woman, 1935) by Wezîrê Nadirî (1911–47). In 1937, the first and only state-supported Kurdish theater in the world was created in Alagyaz, a village mainly populated by Yezidi Kurds in Armenia.&nbsp;ConclusionIn the 20th century, Kurdish intellectuals in the Armenian Soviet Republic created a Kurdish Cyrillic alphabet, collected folklore, compiled textbooks, promoted teaching in Kurdish, and significantly enriched Kurdish literature and arts. These achievements reveal the importance of literacy in the mother tongue in enriching one's national culture and preserving one's ethnic identity.&nbsp; ReferencesAjam Media Collective (2021). Casimê Celîl Archives. [online] Ajam Media Collective. Available at: https://ajammc.com/tag/casime-celil/ [Accessed 22 May 2024].Bocheńska, J. (2018). Rediscovering Kurdistan’s cultures and identities : the call of the cricket. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.Gunter, M.M. (2010). Historical Dictionary of the Kurds. Scarecrow Press.Hamit Bozarslan, Cengiz Gunes and Veli Yadirgi (2021). The Cambridge History of the Kurds. Cambridge University Press.Leezenberg, M. (2015). ‘A People Forgotten by History’: Soviet Studies of the Kurds. Iranian Studies, [online] 48(5), pp.747–767. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24483017 [Accessed 22 May 2024].Mcdowall, D. (2021). A Modern History of the Kurds. London, Uk: I.B. Tauris.Özlem Belçim Galip (2015). Imagining Kurdistan. Bloomsbury Publishing.Pohl, J.Otto. (2022). Soviet Nationality Policy towards Kurds, 1917-1956. [online] Kulturní studia / Cultural Studies. Available at: https://kulturnistudia.cz/soviet-nationality-policy-towards-kurds-1917-1956/ [Accessed 22 May 2024].The Kurdistan Memory Programme (n.d.). History of the Kurds . [online] kurdistanmemoryprogramme.com. Available at: https://kurdistanmemoryprogramme.com/history-of-the-kurds/.Yilmaz, H. (2014). The Rise of Red Kurdistan. Iranian Studies, [online] 47(5), pp.799–822. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24483003 [Accessed 23 Jan. 2024].

Red Kurdistan: Political Autonomy and Kurdish Cultural Revival in the Former Soviet Union

Introduction:&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Water resources are a key factor in protecting nature and ensuring a suitable environment for humans. However, public knowledge about the importance of water resources is very limited and therefore scientific and practical work is needed to raise the level of citizens' perception and appreciation of the issue of water resources.International organizations, especially the United Nations, have concluded that water will be the major issue of the 21st century, and this belief has been emphasized at all international conferences since the Dublin Conference in 2014 in New York. [1]“Surface water is the water sources that flow throughout the year, i.e. permanent rivers, along with sources formed after rainfall and melting snow, i.e. seasonal rivers,” In this regard, the amount of rainfall and snowmelt affect surface and groundwater. [2]Although the use of water and the way it is used has changed throughout history, water resources have been regarded as an economic and social asset at all stages of history. Misuse of water resources is no different from their absence, and many of the negative impacts faced by humans have been and are still associated with mismanagement of water resources.[3]Water income as an economic asset has played a major role in the survival and development of human beings and their activities. Humans have always sought to secure water resources in nature.&nbsp;At the same time, water resources as a social asset are intertwined with human health and spirituality. Through water resources, collective social traditions have emerged that have influenced people's psychologies. Water has constantly affected the human body and soul. In our time, the threat of drought, pollution and misuse of water resources makes it necessary for us to find new strategies for water resource management that will result in the protection of the environment and nature. Raising public awareness of the importance of water can even create new job and business opportunities in relation to water resources, which will be beneficial for the economy and change the way water is used.Research Aims:&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;In this study, water resources refer to surface water, which includes all exposed water bodies on the Earth's surface, the most important of which are streams, rivers, lakes, and seas.This study attempts to present the position and importance of water resources in relation to tourism in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. For this purpose, the study analysis several specific studies on this subject and tries to re-present these studies from the perspective of water resources and highlight the position of water resources as a major factor for the survival or non-survival of tourism in Kurdistan.Research Hypothesis:&nbsp;1. &nbsp; &nbsp; Are water resources a key criterion for determining tourist destinations? In other words, Is it the main pillar of tourism?2. &nbsp; &nbsp; To what extent is the issue of tourism in Kurdistan linked to the issue of water resources?3. &nbsp; &nbsp; Can tourist destinations exist in the Kurdistan Region without water resources? Tourist areas in the Kurdistan Region&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Water resources are closely related to the emergence and development of tourism and affect tourism activities directly and indirectly, in a way that a large part of tourism activities are directly related to water resources.[4] The Kurdistan Region, compared to other parts of Iraq, has more tourist areas and more favorable weather and more rain and snow, these factors have encouraged the emergence of many tourist destinations in the Kurdistan Region. This is especially evident when one looks at the significant number of tourists from other parts of Iraq that visit the tourist destinations of the Kurdistan Region. One of the main reasons for the existence of these tourist areas, in addition to suitable water and atmosphere, is the presence of a significant number of rivers, lakes and streams in Kurdistan that have strengthened the ground for tourist areas. Surface water includes all water bodies that are visible on the earth, the most important of which are streams, rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans.[5] The Kurdistan Region has many such rivers, the most important of which are: Teet, Siwayl, Great and Little Zabs, Jogesur, Balkh and Mawat. Many of these rivers have other tributaries, some seasonal and some permanent, such as the Sewell River and its tributaries, Qzalche and Shler, as well as other tributaries that flow into the Sewell such as Kanar and Mirawa. These rivers and their seasonal and permanent tributaries could become the basis of many more tourist areas, but so far, they are underused due to their seasonality. One of the main sources of &nbsp;surface water in the Kurdistan Region is the Tigris River, all five of whose tributaries flow through Kurdistan. [6] Furthermore, for all rivers, and their seasonal tributaries, the amount of rain and snow have large effects on their growth and sustainability. One of the reasons for the underuse of these rivers seems to be due to the geographical location of the rivers, for example in the Raperin area, where most of the rivers are located in mountainous and valley areas, but they can become important tourist destinations. Many of these rivers cover a large area such as the Little Zab, and also have many tributaries such as the Hisop, Qashan and Shaware. Most of these rivers have tourism potential but are underutilized. Water resources affect tourism activities directly and indirectly.[7] In other words, a large part of water resources constitutes the main source of tourism and without them tourism areas will collapse. River and lake water, for example, are the main source for many of the activities in these tourist areas, such as swimming, boating, sailing, and fishing that are directly connected to the water. The indirect effects of water resources on tourism, can be highlighted by discussing the natural environment that provides water resources for tourism destinations. In some tourist areas, for example in Sulaimani province, the abundance of surface water resources has led to the emergence of a large number of tourist areas. As Amanj Jalal Ahmad's research shows, in the province of Sulaimani, out of 26 projects, 21 are directly affected by water resources. This is due to the presence of Dukan Lake, small rivers and streams. Meanwhile, the flow of large rivers such as the Little Zab, which is about 407 kilometers long, can support many more tourist areas. This river also connects many villages and districts of the region, including the Pishdar and Bitwan plains and reaches Dubz and Altun Kupri through different branches. However, as the study found, the use of the Little Zab in tourism is limited, while it can become a major tourism support due to the suitability of the river and its tributaries. For example, the water temperature of the Little Zab is about 20 degrees and is suitable for tourism activities. The closeness of the Little Zab to the districts has also made it easy to travel to the banks of the river. The Little Zab because of its location has beautiful scenery and it is also rich in fish and its banks are covered with trees. The same is true for the Tabin River, which flows alongside several villages and can make these villages very attractive tourist areas. Apart from Gali Khdran resort, which is a crowded tourist destination, there are no other tourist destinations in the area, or if there are any, they are without services. This is despite the fact that the presence of many forests in the area, can be used to develop tourism. Charmga stream, Khri Saraw and Kalkan streams and many other streams are in this area but they have not been utilized. Additionally, in the same area, there exists several lakes and ponds, such as Begel Pond, which is formed by the melting snow of the Qandil mountain range and has created a beautiful natural landscape. But the most important of all these water resources is the Dukan Lake, which covers about 250 square kilometers and originates from the Little Zab. The Dukan Dam, which was built to prevent floods, to promote irrigation, electricity generation, fishing, and tourism, has become an attractive tourist destination due to the surrounding mountains. The lake has a coastline of about 145 kilometers, which can become a tourist city in some certain locations. Unlike many countries that have a large number of lakes and seas, but due to cold water and air can not use their water resources for tourism, all lakes and rivers in Kurdistan, almost in all four seasons have the ability to attract tourists due to suitable weather. As the research of Rebaz Luqman Mustafa shows, Penjwen district is rich in seasonal streams and rivers that are created by heavy rains and can be used for tourism. Penjwen also has permanent rivers that have a natural stream of water throughout the year, because groundwater accounts for most of the water of these rivers. For example, the Shler River, which has water in all four seasons, consists of the confluence of three other small rivers, Mishaw, Spikan and Shahidan, and many other wells. All these rivers occupy a certain area that can become the basis of a good tourist destination. Although several tourist areas such as Sarsuraw, Sheikh Alwan and Goli have been established, much larger tourist areas could be established. Seasonal streams, which are water sources formed by melting mountain snow and rain, can become the basis of seasonal tourist areas. In Pinjwen district, for example, there are many streams such as Darokhan, Wene and Dole Soor that are flooded in winter and spring and can embrace tourists for these seasons. These areas have a lot of groundwater and become many tourist attractions in the form of springs, wells, and streams. Restructuring the relationship between water resources and tourism&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;In previous discussions, based on field research, the fact that tourism in the Kurdistan Region is largely linked to water resources was emphasized. In fact, this relationship is such that water resources are transformed into a major factor in the emergence, sustainability, and development of tourist destinations in the Kurdistan Region. At the same time, the presence of a large number of lakes, seasonal streams and rivers with their seasonal and permanent tributaries, can be a direct support for the further development of the tourism economy in Kurdistan. This economy can create more jobs and become a strong source of revenue for the Kurdistan Region. This issue is of particular importance for further economic independence and diversification of the Kurdistan Region so that the economy doesn’t solely depend on unpredictable oil revenues.&nbsp;However, this relationship must be two-way. In other words, water resources will be a major &nbsp;support for tourism in the Kurdistan Region and at the same time the tourism economy should be a factor in maintaining, protecting, and developing water resources. Not only should the tourism economy not be built on drying up and wasting water resources, but on the contrary, it can become a factor in further regulating and protecting water resources in the Kurdistan Region. These wise and strategic uses create a two-way relationship between water revenues and tourism, in which a certain part of the tourism economy is allocated to the conservation and promotion of water resources. Water use tax collection will be implemented in tourist destinations to prevent water wastage and generate revenue to conserve water resources. This two-way process will eventually be a strong supporter of tourist destinations and The Kurdistan Region’s economy. Conclusion&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;This study shows that in general, water resources are a major factor in the emergence and development of tourism destinations in the Kurdistan Region. The value and strategic nature of this national asset becomes more apparent when it is linked to the issue of tourism in the Kurdistan Region. In the region, there are favorable conditions for increasing and developing these tourist destinations, both in number and quality. The tourism economy can become a strategic source of revenue for the Kurdistan Region and can help achieving economic diversification and independence in the region. This will occur when water resources are used more wisely, which will be the basis for the development and expansion of tourist destinations. This study shows that the Kurdistan Region has many water resources that are either unused or poorly used. Restructuring the relationship between water resources and tourism can effectively preserve and develop both issues and use them in public service. &nbsp;References&nbsp; [1] Mohammed Amin, Hawre Yasin, Geography of Natural Resources, Ghazalnoos Printing House, Sulaimani 2015, p. 213 [2] Mustafa, Rebaz Luqman, Geographical Capabilities of Tourism Planning and Development in Penjwen District Using GIS, Sulaimani University, Master's Thesis, Unpublished, 2016, p. 49 [3] Muhammad Amin, Azad, Geography of Natural Resources, Dar Al-Hekma Press, Baghdad, 1990, p. 2. [4] Mohammed, Atman Mohammed, Geographical Principles of Tourism Planning in Sharbazher District, Master's Thesis (Unpublished), 2015 p.48 [5] Mohammed Amin, Hawre Yasin, Geography of Natural Resources, Ghazalnoos Printing House, Sulaimani 2015, p. 232&nbsp; [6] Yousef, Azhin Anwar, Natural Capabilities of Tourism Planning and Development in Mountainous Areas of Raperin Administration, Raperin University Master's Thesis (Unpublished), 2017 p. 102[7] Ahmad, Amanj Jalal, Geographical Analysis of Tourism Development Capabilities in Dukan District, Koya University, Master's Thesis, Unpublished, Newroz 2715, p. 80&nbsp;

The Role of Natural Water Resources in the Development of the Tourism sector in the Kurdistan Region in Iraq

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