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The Importance and Challenges of Establishing the Federation Council in Iraq

An assessment of Entrepreneurship in The Kurdistan Region

IntroductionThis brief study delves into the intricate ways layered identities co-exist and evolve within the Kurdish diaspora, shaped by a complex interplay of internal and external forces—such as language, family ties, community bonds, and the cultural dynamics of the host country. By highlighting the factors that diasporic Kurds identify as contributing to the success or challenges of balancing their heritage with the identity of their adopted home, this research sheds light on the key elements that shape and preserve Kurdish identity abroad.Literature Review&nbsp;Identity may not have a &nbsp;universal definition, it is widely considered however as the collection of characteristics, beliefs, values, and experiences that make up who a person is and how they see themselves. A key concept taken from Stuart Hall’s essay "Cultural Identity and Diaspora" is that identity is not fixed but rather an ongoing process shaped by historical and cultural contexts including personal and collective experiences (Hall, 2014). Identity encompasses various aspects such as ethnicity, nationality, language, religion, and personal values for those in the diaspora, and as individuals mature both mentally and physically, these aspects may evolve, causing one’s identity to also shift over time. This evolution can lead to either greater harmony or increased tension in the coexistence of multiple identities. Renowned linguist Noam Chomsky &nbsp;recognizes that language is often the most immediate foundation in the structure of one’s identity and cognitive structure (Chomsky,1984). Language is therefore a powerful marker of identity construction for individuals of shared ethnicity and serves as a means of expressing one’s culture through communication. Benedict Anderson argues that a nation is moreover imagined as a community, a deep and horizontal fraternity that united all of its members across age, class, color, creed, gender – irrespective of actually existing divisions (Anderson, 2016). The common thread that binds ethnic groups living in diaspora apart from language is also the shared vision of a homeland - a nation. Jowan Mahmod presents the argument that diaspora Kurds have conflicting views and emotions among young diasporic Kurds, and their changed views that challenge the Kurdish perceptions of identity as a static and unified entity. Kurds are constantly reminded that their homeland is not a recognized nation, which can be seen as fueling a stronger desire to preserve their cultural identity. Mahmod also argues that diasporic populations often have tragic stories of violence in the homeland and individual experiences of genocide (Mahmod, 2019). Individual experiences, whether Kurds recall them firsthand or were exposed to their families' trauma through oral stories shared by parents or elders or through social media, news outlets, films, play a key role in shaping identity as the identity of Kurds in diaspora continues to evolve. While the process of balancing multiple identities varies from person to person, it is significant to understand these experiences to fully grasp Kurdish identity and the sense of belonging in the diaspora.&nbsp; Theoretical Framework&nbsp; Identity as a concept is defined as the set of qualities, beliefs, personality traits, appearance, and/or expressions that characterize a person or a group (Jary &amp; Jary, 2000). The etymology of the term "identity" is from the Latin noun identitas, and means an individual's mental image of themselves and their "sameness with others.”&nbsp;Cultural identity is defined as a collective and shared sense of self, rooted in common historical experiences, memories, and cultural practices. It emphasizes the sense of belonging to a unified cultural group, which gives individuals a stable sense of who they are through collective memory of their history, language, and struggles, which unites them as a group (Hall, 2014). Hall stresses that identity construction is never fixed; it evolves through time, interaction, social and political relationships, and experiences (2014).&nbsp;Diaspora refers to the dispersion of people from their homeland; as a dispersed population that shares a common origin or homeland but lives outside of it, often due to historical forces like migration, displacement, or exile (Cohen,1997).&nbsp;Belonging is a multi-layered concept that goes beyond mere membership in a community or society. Yuval-Davis (2011) emphasizes that belonging is not just about social location but also involves emotional attachment and a sense of being at home in a specific context. Her definition of belonging incorporates social, political, and personal dimensions, which can change over time and in different spaces (2011). In the context of this study, diaspora belonging refers to feeling a sense of acceptance and attachment, as well as an ability to conform to the social norms and etiquette of one’s country of residence.&nbsp; Research Methodology&nbsp;This study utilized two methods for data collection: an online survey with 46 participants and interviews with 10 individuals who were either born in or relocated to their host countries between the ages of 2 and 9. Quantitative research methods were used in this study to analyze the data collected from the survey and compile into statistical representations and pie charts. Additionally, qualitative research methods were used to illuminate the participants' experiences and the meanings they attach to the construction and perceptions of their multiple identities.&nbsp;The Results of Online Survey&nbsp; The online survey had 46 participants; 53% of which were female while 47% of which were male.&nbsp; The majority of the participant’s ages ranged between 21-37 years.&nbsp; The majority of the participants reside in Canada, America, the UK, and Norway.&nbsp; All participants of this study identified as Kurdish, however expressed that they were Kurdish from various countries - Iraq, Iran, Syria, and Turkey.&nbsp; The majority of which were from Iraqi Kurdistan, and were of Behdin (Kurmanji) and Sorani dialect speakers.&nbsp;Survey Questions&nbsp; 1. Do you have difficulty balancing your Kurdish identity in your resident country?&nbsp;2. Do you feel a strong sense of Kurdish identity despite living abroad?&nbsp;3. Do you identify as a Kurd first, or second to the nationality of your country of residence?Main Findings 58% of survey participants answered ‘Yes’ to having difficulty balancing Kurdish identity in their country of residence. While 42% answered ‘No.’&nbsp; 80% of survey participants answered ‘Yes’ to feeling a strong sense of Kurdish identity despite living abroad. &nbsp;While 20% answered ‘No.’&nbsp; 89% of survey participants answered ‘Yes’ to identifying as Kurd first rather than second to the nationality of their country of residence. While 11% answered ‘No’&nbsp; <figure id="figure-vh0yz10l4bm4i7lrq0"><img id="vh0yz10l4bm4i7lrq0" src="https://cdn.durable.co/blocks/30lHIvvJ9jwBLKSEVF3C9U36q3LO0JPLC8eUuJp0lGaxlDYRHdTxCrCkk5Gdivty.png" alt="" title="" class="object-cover bg-gray-100 " style="aspect-ratio: 16/9; object-position: center center;" data-corners="default" data-aspect="16:9" data-caption="" data-positionx="undefined" data-positiony="undefined" data-fullwidth="false" data-mce-src="https://cdn.durable.co/blocks/30lHIvvJ9jwBLKSEVF3C9U36q3LO0JPLC8eUuJp0lGaxlDYRHdTxCrCkk5Gdivty.png" data-mce-style="aspect-ratio: 16/9; object-position: center center;"></figure>Interview Results&nbsp; The 10 interview participants were asked four questions:&nbsp; Question 1: How would you describe your sense of Kurdish identity while living in the diaspora? Question 2: In what ways do you feel connected to your Kurdish heritage while living abroad? Are there moments when you feel distant from it? Question 3: Do you feel more connected to the Kurdish community, your host country's culture, or both? How do you navigate these different identities? Question 4: What factors were most influential in preserving your Kurdish identity?&nbsp; The majority of interview participants, 80%, &nbsp;described their Kurdish identity as integral to "who they are"—deeply instilled in their sense of self and a defining aspect of their overall identity. 100% of interview participants indicated that their Kurdish identity was strongly shaped by speaking Kurdish and engaging in traditions preserved by their community and elders, as well as past traumas of their families as a result of persecution, genocide, and fleeing war. Additionally, 90% of participants live in communities with a significant Kurdish population that maintain traditions such as family visitations, weddings, funeral practices, Eid customs, and more. This connection to their community allowed them to feel "connected" to their Kurdish heritage. Furthermore, 92% of participants emphasized their parents' strong desire to preserve cultural traditions as a way to instill a deep sense of Kurdish identity in their children, reminding them that they are "different" from the identity of their host country—religiously, culturally, morally, and ethnically. However, 65% of participants noted that they felt distanced from their Kurdish heritage when interacting with non-Kurdish individuals in their host countries, while 35% stated they never felt distant from their Kurdish culture. All participants, 100%, expressed that language is the most important factor in shaping and preserving their Kurdish identity. Moreover, 85% of interviewees agreed that identity is fluid and can evolve over time due to life experiences, relationships, and societal influences. Nonetheless, every participant emphasized the significant role that their Kurdish heritage played in shaping both their past and current identities. In terms of balance, 75% of participants reported that their Kurdish identity was difficult to reconcile with their host country’s culture during their younger years, particularly in elementary and high school, when they struggled to articulate aspects of their culture to non-Kurds. Additionally, 71% of participants stated that they navigate their layered identities by connecting socially with fellow Kurds and attending Kurdish events. Meanwhile, 22% reported embracing the cultural identity of their host country, and 11% of participants stated they did not experience any significant difficulties in balancing their Kurdish and host-country identities. Discussion&nbsp; While each Kurdish individual's experience in the diaspora is shaped by their unique upbringing and community, the research collected from participants in this study reveals a common thread in the construction of Kurdish identity. For the majority of participants in this study, this thread is intricately woven through the upholding of Kurdish traditions, language, and a strong sense of community; for others, their Kurdish identity serves as a simple reminder and renders little significance in the way one identifies his/her sense of self. This corroborates Anderson’s (2016) unification through imagined community theory, as many diasporic Kurds hold a shared connection as part of a larger collective. Also, Hall’s (2014) argument that identity is a shape-shifting and enduring process is underscored in this brief study. This study also highlights the significance of language as a foundational pillar in preserving Kurdish identity. Chomsky's (1984) assertion that language forms the strongest basis for both identity and cognitive development reinforces this idea, emphasizing the central role language plays in shaping one's sense of self. Nevertheless, participants in both surveys and interviews expressed a shared sentiment of feeling connected to both their host country's identity and their Kurdish identity, with the emphasis on one or the other varying depending on context—such as at school, non-Kurdish social events, or in the workplace. Multiple identities evolve and reconcile themselves through maturity, experiences, and introspection of themselves and the perception of the world around them. Kurds in the diaspora often face the challenge of reconciling multiple identities as they adapt to the culture of their host country while raising families and passing Kurdish traditions onto their children. This sense of "us" and "them," which participants emphasized their parents aimed to instill, is not viewed as a hostile juxtaposition but rather as an added dimensionality and vibrant layer to the self-identity of diasporic Kurds. The findings of this study suggest that multiple identities coexist more harmoniously as individuals mature, becoming more introspective, articulate, and comfortable in expressing their multiple identities.&nbsp;Conclusion&nbsp;The research reveals a dynamic interplay of factors that both strengthen and challenge the balancing of layered identities—specifically, the Kurdish identity and that of the host country. Elements such as language, cultural traditions, and the collective memory of trauma from displacement and conflict emerge as pivotal in shaping Kurdish identity abroad. Yet, this process is anything but uniform. Individual experiences, generational shifts, and varying levels of integration into host societies all influence how Kurds construct and express their identities in the diaspora. While many Kurds in the diaspora develop a sense of belonging and attachment to their adopted countries, the findings suggest that Kurdish identity remains a deeply ingrained aspect of their self-concept, woven alongside their connection to their adopted homeland.References&nbsp;[1] Albury, N. J., &amp; Schluter, A. A. (2021). Introduction: Reimagining language and belonging in the diaspora. Lingua, 263, Article 103157. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2021.103157" data-mce-href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2021.103157">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lingua.2021.103157</a>[2] Anderson, Benedict. 2016. Imagined Communities. London, England: Verso Books. [3] Barbosa, Eduardo. (2023). The Relationship Between Language and Identity.&nbsp;The Relationship Between Language and Identity | by CLAC VIII - 2023.1 | Medium [4] Canagarajah, S., &amp; Silberstein, S. (2012). Diaspora Identities and Language. Journal of Language, Identity &amp; Education, 11(2), 81–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348458.2012.667296 [5] Cohen, R. (1997). Global Diasporas: An Introduction. United Kingdom: UCL Press [6] García, O., Flores, N., &amp; Spotti, M. (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Language and Society. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.&nbsp; [7] Hall, Stuart.(2014). “Cultural Identity and Diaspora.” Undoing Place? &nbsp;222-237. hallculturalidentityanddiaspora.pdf (warwick.ac.uk) [8] Jary, D., &amp; Jary, J. (2000). Collins Dictionary of Sociology. United Kingdom: Harper Collins. https://books.google.no/books?id=vavLSAAACAAJ [9] Mahmod, Jowan. “New Online Communities and New Identity Making: The Curious Case of the Kurdish Diaspora.” Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies 6, no. 2 (2019) 34–43. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48710218. [10] Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved from: identity | Etymology of identity by etymonline[11] Osiatyński, Wiktor. (1984). Contrasts: Soviet and American Thinkers Discuss the Future. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Pp. 95-101. The University of California: MacMillan Press. On Language and Culture, Noam Chomsky interviewed by Wiktor Osiatynski &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; [12] Yuval-Davis, Nira (2011). The Politics of Belonging: Intersectional Contestations. United Kingdom: SAGE Publications.

Kurdish Identity and Diaspora Belonging: Balancing Multiple Identities

Introduction&nbsp;The &nbsp;Kurdistan Region, with its mountainous landscapes and fertile grounds, hosts a diverse ecosystem that sustains both human and animal populations. However, due to global climate change, the region faces challenges in conserving the land's natural resources which livelihoods and economics rely upon. The region has a prolonged history of political conflicts extending to current Turkish bombardments in its mountains, aggravating these challenges due to the impact of military activities. This article posits that the confluence of ecocidal factors, climate change and military conflict, further degrades the habitat due to pollution and deforestation, contributing to significant public health issues.&nbsp; The following article incorporates insights from previous findings regarding the effect of climate change and military conflicts on the environment and public health in the Kurdistan Region. The crucial research question we aim to delve into is: "In what ways do climate change and military conflicts impact environmental degradation and public health concerns in the Kurdistan Region?" With the convergence of environmental and political obstacles in Kurdistan, tackling this inquiry is imperative in grasping the heightened risks confronting both its residents and the natural surroundings. By exploring this intersection between climate and conflict, we aim to bridge a significant gap in existing research on the topic.&nbsp; Literature Review&nbsp;The challenges set upon this region due to climate change are exacerbated due to ongoing military conflicts (Eklund et al., 2021). Previous studies underscore how climate change is reflected in the region through irregular rainfalls, rising temperatures, and prolonged droughts, which exacerbate issues such as water scarcity and agricultural decline (‌Escribano, P. &amp; D. Pons Ganddini, 2024). The strategies adopted to cope with this dire situation, such as water conservation and livelihood diversification, highlight the interconnectedness of climate change and political disputes in the region and the repercussions on public health and the environment (Sheikh &amp; Aziz, 2024).&nbsp; Although the environmental impact of climate change has been thoroughly researched, less focus has been devoted to how warfare can exacerbate these concerns. Military conflicts, notably the prevailing Turkish military operations, perpetuate environmental degradation through forest fires, soil erosion, and pollution. As a result of these detrimental factors on the environment, cases of respiratory illnesses in Kurdistan are on an incline due to the worsening of air quality and rise in temperatures. It has been reported that the rise in respiratory diseases, like asthma and bronchitis, are linked to increased dust storms and air pollution (Mamluk &amp; Karadaghy, 2024). Nevertheless, there has been little research into the overall effects of climate change and warfare on Kurdistan's environment and public health. This study aims to bridge this gap by examining how the combination of these factors exacerbates environmental and health concerns, with the objective of demonstrating the need for efficient policy solutions in the region. Methodology&nbsp;The presented research will adopt a qualitative approach by utilizing secondary data to investigate the intersection of climate change, warfare, and public health in the Kurdistan Region. The research draws on existing studies, including peer-reviewed articles, reports, and data analysis. The sources were chosen based on relevancy to the research fields of climate change, military-implicated environmental degradation, and public health repercussions. The sources are region-specific research, crucial to illuminate vital insights characteristic to the Kurdistan Region and provide a robust structure for understanding the interlinked variables affecting the area.&nbsp; DiscussionsEnvironmental Impact of Military Conflict&nbsp;The Kurdistan Region has a long history of interplay between political instabilities and environmental obstacles that jeopardize the welfare and sustenance of its population. The ongoing Turkish armed attacks in its mountains have led to damages that extend far beyond the targeted points. These attacks have caused extensive forest fires and deforestation, posing threats to the land's biodiversity and resilience against climate change (Eklund et al., 2021). Moreover, the destruction of forests halts the absorption of carbon dioxide and releases its storage back into the atmosphere: As a result, the region is more susceptible to environmental deterioration, such as soil erosion and desertification, due to the loss of forest cover which interferes with the ecosystems and contributes to the extinction of plant and animal species (Hawramy, 2018). Furthermore, soil erosion and loss of vegetation contribute to dust storms, which in turn worsen land degradation and reduce agriculture productivity by stripping away the nutrition-rich topsoil (Hama-Aziz, 2022; Sissakian et al., 2013). The ramifications of military operations include the destruction of natural water infrastructure, disturbance of river flow, and pollution of water sources (Schillinger et al., 2020). As an example, military-grade explosives cause long-term ecological damage due to the harmful residues: Such contamination contributes to airborne and waterborne diseases (Ahmed&amp; Hussein, 2024). The combined impacts of climate change and military related damage amplify water scarcity. Irregular rainfalls and extended drought periods in turn reduce water resources and increase pollutant concentration in available sources(Schillinger et al., 2020).. Air Quality and Respiratory Health Implications&nbsp;The dual impact of military conflict and climate change significantly worsens the air quality of the region. Particulate matter is tiny particles suspended in the air and can have various sources such as vehicle emissions, industrial and construction processes, and natural sources such as dust. PM 2.5, which are 2.5 micrometers in diameter, are of particular concern since they are small enough to be inhaled deep into the lungs and trigger health problems. The region has rising levels of PM 2.5 as a result of military activities aggravating dust storms and wildfires. Especially the recurrent bombings in the mountainous areas release particulate matter and other harmful pollutants by igniting wildfires and destroying forested land. Consequently, leading to a rise in respiratory problems like asthma and bronchitis, as the fine particles penetrate deep into the lungs ‌ (Tripathi and Dhananjay, 2021; Hama-Aziz, 2022) Public Health Repercussions&nbsp;The detrimental effects of the dual crisis in the Kurdistan Region are progressively evident. Primarily, these effects are apparent in the rise in respiratory illnesses, heat-related issues, and waterborne diseases. The decline in air quality facilitated by an ensemble of dust storms and military-related pollution has culminated in a prevalence of respiratory conditions such as bronchitis, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)(Miri, et al., 2007). According to studies, concentrations of particulate matter (PM 2.5) are higher in conflict zones, enhancing these health hazards on the population. These tiny particles have the ability to bypass the blood-brain barrier and cause cognitive dysfunction. The exposure of the central nervous system to particulate matter has been linked to the development of neuropathological conditions such as stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease (Dovbeshko&amp; Borisova, 2024). Additionally, the rise in temperatures increases the risk of cardiac ailments, particularly amongst susceptible groups such as the elderly and those with pre-existing conditions (Tripathi and Dhananjay, 2021).&nbsp; Conclusion&nbsp;The aftermath of the cumulative effects of climate change and military conflict in the Kurdistan Region have led to the public health crisis due to the degradation of the environment. The habit of this region is strained to sustain life as military operations further aggravate damage. The environmental damage not only endangers the quality of soil, air, and water but also acts as a catalyst for the public health crisis, contributing to an increase in respiratory, cardiac, waterborne diseases, and other complications. In order to address the aforementioned challenges, a comprehensive resolution addressing climate adaptation and conflict mitigation would resolve the intertwined issues prompted in the region. &nbsp;First, regional government and international organizations should collaborate to initiate environmental restoration initiatives with a focus on forest restoration and soil conservation. Second, stronger parameters on emissions and pollution management in conflict zones could mitigate the health implications of particulate matter. Furthermore, implementing water conservation measures and establishing alternative water sources will help to alleviate water shortages, while improving healthcare facilities to manage climate and pollution-related illnesses ReferencesAhmed, Sanarya &amp; Hussein, Rabar. (2024). ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTIONS RELATED TO CONFLICTS IN IRAQ AND PEOPLE'S HEALTH OUTCOMES. 8. 3-14.&nbsp; Dovbeshko, Galyna, and Tatiana Borisova. "War-Derived Air Pollution Nanohybrids and Their Membrane-Active Properties." Low Temperature Physics, vol. 50, no. 3, 1 Mar. 2024, pp. 191-195. https://doi.org/10.1063/10.0024966. Accessed 30 Apr. 2024. Eklund, Lina, et al. “On the Geopolitics of Fire, Conflict and Land in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.” Remote Sensing, vol. 13, no. 8, 19 Apr. 2021, p. 1575, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13081575. ‌Escribano, P. and D. Pons Ganddini (2024). Climate change, food insecurity and human mobility: Interlinkages, evidence and action. In: World Migration Report 2024 (M. McAuliffe and L.A. Oucho, eds.). International Organization for Migration (IOM), GenFloral HAMA-AZIZ, ZANIST. “ASSESSMENT of AIR POLLUTION in KURDISTAN REGION of IRAQ.” Pollution Research, 30 June 2022, pp. 457–466, https://doi.org/10.53550/pr.2022.v41i02.011. Accessed 12 Dec. 2022. Hawramy, F. Fires and Armed Conflict Take Toll on Kurdish Flora, Fauna. Al-Monitor. 5 July 2018. Available online: https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2018/07/kurdish-forests-under-threat-of-wildfires.html (accessed on 1 February 2021). Ibraheem, Fakhri H, et al. “Environmental Issues and Concerns in Iraq and Kurdistan Region due to Various Pollutants.” the Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, 1 Jan. 2024, www.researchgate.net/publication/383258861_Environmental_Issues_and_Concerns_in_Iraq_and_Kurdistan_Region_Due_to_Various_Pollutants, https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2024_1110. Accessed 2 Nov. 2024. Maryiam Salem Mamluk, and Kamaran Amin Karadakhy. “Aggravating Factors of Asthma among Patients Visited Respiratory Center at Shar Hospital Outpatient in Sulaymaniyah-Kurdistan-Iraq.” Advanced Medical Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, 4 June 2024, pp. 19–26, https://doi.org/10.56056/amj.2024.253. Accessed 13 Sept. 2024. Miri, Abbas, et al. Dust Storms Impacts on Air Pollution and Public Health under Hot and Dry Climate. Vol. 2(1), no. 1, 1 Jan. 2007, www.researchgate.net/publication/238086966_Dust_Storms_Impacts_on_Air_Pollution_and_Public_Health_under_Hot_and_Dry_Climate/citations. Othman, Nasih, et al. Environmental Health Assessment in Sulaymaniyah City and Vicinity. 10 Apr. 2017, www.researchgate.net/publication/319493592_Environmental_Health_Assessment_in_Sulaymaniyah_City_and_Vicinity. Schillinger, Juliane, et al. “Water in War: Understanding the Impacts of Armed Conflict on Water Resources and Their Management.” WIREs Water, vol. 7, no. 6, 27 Aug. 2020, wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wat2.1480, https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1480. Sheikh, Mohammed, and Shuokr Qarani Aziz. “Issues of Water and Climate Change in the Kurdistan Region and Iraq. A Review Study.” ResearchGate, unknown, 29 Aug. 2024, www.researchgate.net/publication/384051753_Issues_of_Water_and_Climate_Change_in_the_Kurdistan_Region_and_Iraq_A_Review_Study. Accessed 2 Nov. 2024. Sissakian, Varoujan K., et al. “Sand and Dust Storm Events in Iraq.” Natural Science, vol. 05, no. 10, 2013, pp. 1084–1094, https://doi.org/10.4236/ns.2013.510133. Accessed 1 May 2019. ‌Tripathi, Dhananjay. (2021). Particulate Matter and Human Health. 10.5772/intechopen.100550.&nbsp;

The Impact of Climate Change and Military Conflict on the Environment and Public Health in the Kurdistan Region

Introduction: The environment and its issues have become an active part of state policies, and even everyday people's conversations. This is rooted in the reality that the environment regulates the lives of humans and other living beings, as it provides their needs and the foundations for their existence and development. Therefore, &nbsp;all attempts and plans made to protect the environment from any developments, are parallel to the survival of humans and other creatures. (1)&nbsp; "The environment, in its broad sense, refers to the geography that organizes the life of living beings and provides the foundation for their existence, development, and the fulfillment of their needs. The living beings interact with nature and attempt to adapt to it” (2).&nbsp; While living creatures have the ability to adapt to the conditions brought on by new events, some scientists and cosmologists believe and state that the destruction to the environment, caused by pollution, has reached an irreversible stage, and our existence in these environments is heading towards an inevitable natural end (3).&nbsp; The selfish attitudes, short-sightedness and greed of individuals, companies and governments, and the sacrifice of public interests for their own private ones is the main cause of environmental pollution and global warming (4).&nbsp;<blockquote> “Plastic waste is one of the most dangerous environmental issues, &nbsp;threatening life on land and marine life. While natural ecosystems already suffer from major issues like acid rain, agricultural degradation caused by pesticides, and chemical pollution. Countries have largely attempted to reduce their plastic production"&nbsp;</blockquote>Environmental pollution refers to those ecological changes and disruptions that take place in natural ecosystems. As a result, threats emerge that directly and indirectly harms all facets of life on earth (5).&nbsp; Types of Plastics used in Food Packaging Industry: The components of plastic used in the production of food and medicine containers vary. These components can be used alone or mixed with other ones. The most important of these components are:1. Low-density polyethylene: Used in making most containers for hot food. It sticks together when heated and is commonly referred to as plastic containers. (Figure 2) 2. High-density polyethylene: Used in household items, water pipes, and probes. It can also be used for storing sterilized foods. This component is distinguishable as it can prevent moisture and remain soft when frozen at temperatures below -5°C. 3. Polyethylene terephthalate: This type can withstand high temperatures up to 300°C, is impermeable to moisture and gasses, is transparent, and highly resistant to organic solvents. It's used for storing potable water, frozen meats, and other foods. Some water bottling plants prefer this type and use it instead of polyvinyl chloride.4. Polyvinyl chloride: This type of plastic is unaffected by grease and is used in food container production. It has high moisture resistance, and its rigid type is used in making containers for edible oils, drinking water, concentrated fruit juices, fermented foods, olives, and many other items due to its high resistance to moisture, fats, and gasses. 5. Polycarbonate: This is a type of plastic made from bisphenol. It has strong resistance to breakage, chemicals, and weather. It's transparent and rigid, used in making household items, baby pacifiers and bottles. However, doubts about its suitability have recently emerged (6).&nbsp; Plastic pollution in United Nations data: According to data from the United Nations and environmental organizations:- About one million water bottles are bought every minute worldwide.- The use of plastic bags reaches 5 trillion annually.- Half of the plastic products are made for single use.Currently, 300 million tons of plastic waste are produced annually (this amount equals the weight of humans on Earth). Scientists believe that since the 1950s, humans have produced about 8.3 billion tons of plastic, 60% of which has been discarded into nature. 99% of produced plastic is made from chemicals derived from oil, natural gas, and coal. If this continues, by 2050, plastic production will account for 20% of oil-dependent industries (7). &nbsp;Marine plastic pollution affects 800 species of animals through ingestion, starvation, suffocation, entanglement, and drowning. Plastic waste kills about one million seabirds and 100,000 fish and other animals annually.&nbsp; Waste from cities amounts to thousands or millions of tons of waste, and effectively getting rid of this waste is still a very complex problem. Often, residents burn their waste, producing gasses with several harmful components that affect the population, plants, and animals. Particularly, city waste contains several new types that didn't exist before, and the most dangerous of all is plastic and its emissions when burned (8).&nbsp;In the 1990s, plastic waste reached three times that of twenty years earlier, but at the beginning of the twenty-first century, plastic production increased compared to forty years before.&nbsp; Main sources of environmental pollution by plastic in Kurdistan Firstly, In the Kurdistan Region, the culture of picnicking and traveling to nature is common, especially during springs and summers. During these trips, disposable eating utensils such as plates, cutlery, glasses, tablecloths, water bottles, and drinking straws are discarded in nature in very large quantities, polluting the environment. Disposing of this waste becomes a great danger to the lives of animals and the environment. Secondly, Homes are a major source of this plastic waste. A family of four members throws away a large bag of empty water bottles and disposable tablecloths daily, in addition to shampoo bottles, cosmetics and cleaning products, children's toys, and even various household appliances. Thirdly, Second-hand markets in Kurdistan can be seen as a source of plastic, as many of the old plastic items in large bales are useless. Pishtiwan, one of the household goods shopkeepers in the Langa market, doesn't hide that one of the reasons for the high prices of these goods is that most of them are discarded and useless. "Every shipment we receive, if it's 80 kilos, about 20 to 25 kilos are for disposal." (9).&nbsp; Conclusion: Plastic is:- Cheap- Long-lasting- Easy to produce- Lightweight All these characteristics that are known as plastic attributes are both its strengths and weaknesses. Plastic has direct and indirect effects on marine and terrestrial ecosystems, and at the same time, the microplastics consumed by fish and animals end up on human tables (10).&nbsp; Recommendations:&nbsp; If it's believed that big changes start with individuals (11), there are a set of guidelines that can reduce the likelihood of increasing plastic waste and environmental pollution: - Reducing or eliminating the use of plastic bags and replacing them with cloth or paper bags.- Using reusable water bottles in the water bottling industry.&nbsp;- Not using plastic straws, which may seem simple but straws are one of the items that cannot be recycled. There is currently a campaign to reduce straws, and big companies like Starbucks and McDonald's are among the leading companies of this campaign.&nbsp;- Kitchen utensils should not be plastic; this can be achieved by using plastic alternatives such as glass and other materials.- Carefully selecting clothes and personal hygiene items, including toothpaste and cosmetics in general. References1. Naqshbandi, Azad Muhammad Amin Naqshbandi, Environmental Geography, 2017, p. 31 2. Naqshbandi, Azad Muhammad Amin, Ibid, p. 13 3. Barzanji, Siddiq Sheikh Mahmoud, Human Impact on Environmental Pollution, First Edition, 2001, p. 7 4. Naqshbandi, Azad Muhammad Amin, Global Warming and Its Impact on the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, Roshnbiri Press, Erbil, 2008, p. 4 5. Barzanji, Siddiq Sheikh Mahmoud, Same previous source, p. 52 6. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332514012_alblastyk_wdrjt_tlwythh_alaghdhyt 7. (1) Plastic Pollution | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (unesco.org)&nbsp; &nbsp;(2) Plastic Pollution: A Global Danger Killing One Person Every Half Minute? (annabaa.org) 8. Abdul-Munim Balba', Environmental Pollution is a Global Problem Threatening Humans, Narin Press, 2013, p. 123 9. Researcher's interview with a second-hand market seller 10. Five Things You Can Do to End Plastic Pollution (worldbank.org)

The Growing Threat of Plastic Pollution: Impact, Challenges, and Sustainable Solutions

Introduction&nbsp; &nbsp;The law, on the one hand, is a tool for implementing and enforcing justice, both at the national and the international level. On the other hand, language is an instrument for establishing, expressing, explaining, and enforcing law, and as a result, it is an instrument for achieving justice, both at the societal and the international levels. One very important aspect of the law is that it should be understood by the general public. Hence, if the general public does not understand the text, terms, and the legal decisions, violation of the law and punishment do not have meaning. Therefore, the subject of law and the understanding of all the legal texts and terminology by the public is essential to establish justice in society.&nbsp; In Iraq, Arabic is seen as the language of the law, and all legal texts are written in Arabic. The Kurdish language on the other hand is seen as a local language and it has been neglected. This is due to a few factors: one is the dominance of Arabic ever since the creation of the modern state of Iraq which favored Arabic as the language of the majority. And the fact that the Arabic language is the language of Islam (which is the religion of the majority of the citizens in the KRI). However, the establishment of the Kurdistan Region in 1992, and the recognition of the Kurdish language as an official language in Iraq according to article 4 of the 2005 constitution, marked the beginning of a new era regarding the status of the Kurdish language in Iraq and the Kurdistan Region.&nbsp; One of the reasons for the existence of multiple official languages rather than a single official language is that with the evidence of each country’s linguistic diversity, societies have reached the conclusion that a common language is not a factor of national unity. Therefore, in order to lessen national conflicts, states have implemented the Policy of “Peaceful Linguistic Coexistence”. This is a policy based on three principles, which are: Equality of Official Languages, Freedom of Implementation of Languages, and the granting of more executive power to regions based on the principle of primacy. In the meantime, 55 states in the world have more than one official languages.&nbsp; The Kurdish language in the Courts in the KRIIn this section, we will focus on the following topics: the importance and need to protect the Kurdish language, the use of the Kurdish language in the courts of the Kurdistan region, and the challenges facing the development of the Kurdish language in courts. The importance and need to protect the Kurdish language&nbsp;The language of any individual and nation, in addition to being a means of communication, is also a means to express the identity of said nation. Even if an individual is able to speak other languages, he constantly acquires his individual and social identity through his mother tongue. It is the language that reflects the historical events and experiences that the people have witnessed throughout history. It is clear that the preservation and development of this language will preserve the cultural and historical boundaries of this nation and will strengthen the political identity of this nation. Furthermore, language is more than a means of communication and is in fact a part of the nation’s identity and culture. When a language dies, the culture that it covers dies with it. Undoubtedly, on the individual level, language is very important for shaping an individual’s identity, and on the social level it is important for social unification. Historically, the usage of language to serve political goals started with the modern era. The major European states did not have a single unified language from the start. When Italy achieved political unity only 2% of the population spoke Italian, in Germany during the process of German unification, only 17% of the population spoke German. In France in 1790, only 10% of the population spoke standard French, and in 1873 more than a quarter of the French population could not understand standard French.&nbsp;When the language, culture and history of an oppressed group of people are suppressed and neglected, members of that group feel inferior, and come to believe that they have nothing to be proud of, and thus this sense of inferiority gradually becomes the norm. As a result, member members of that group resort to cultural suicide, abandoning their native culture and language, losing their identity and history, and turn to the culture and language of the dominant group.&nbsp; Today, policies for linguistic preservation have emerged, and they are being implemented in some countries around the world, as the situation in the world today is that if such policies don’t come about, many languages will disappear. The Kurdish language is not far from the danger of disappearing, hence policies to protect the language are essential. It is clear that this is not an individual task, but the powers that be must work to preserve the language and protect it with a short-term and a long-term program. Linguistic Policy is basically a design for the development of one or more languages and, as such, determines the use of languages in various fields such as teaching, administration, media, etc. Language policy is the examination of all linguistic behaviors such as assumptions, cultural patterns, popular beliefs, and attitudes towards language, etc. The usage of the Kurdish language in the courts of KRILegal language is a tool for establishing communication in the field of law and ensuring the enforcement of law. Legal language is difficult to understand by people without legal expertise, to the extent that European linguists have coined the term “Legal Language”. One of the reasons for this problem is that legal language, unlike other languages, is a static language and it does not change. It is the people's right to understand legal decisions and to know whether a decision that has been made in the court is against them or in their favor. In countries that have more than one official and legal language, linguistic policies flourish more.&nbsp;Creating equal status for all the official languages in a state is one of the legal issues of language policy. For example, the Canadian constitution recognizes both English and French as the country’s official languages and gives them equal rights and privileges in all government institutions.&nbsp;Language is the identity of nations, and the Kurdish nation has a legitimate right to protect their language, especially the language of the law, which is the language of communication between the legislation, judiciary and executive powers with the people. The law is the highest expression of the will of the people, and the most prominent symbol of the sovereignty of the state over its territory. Therefore, the language of the law must be the language of the nation itself. Iraqi jurist and academic, Ismaat Abdul Majid says : “The proper condition of a legal officer is that the officers have the ability to understand the law. For this reason, the law should be written in the language of the country which it is enforced, so that the citizens can understand the law”.&nbsp;As mentioned earlier. The judiciary Law No. 14 of 1992 in its fifth article states that the Kurdish language is the language of the courts of the Kurdistan Region and supporting this law, the Ministry of Justice by Ministerial Order No. 343 dated 3/6/2000 decided that from this date onwards, all legal affairs of the courts, from complaints to requests, minutes, judgements, and court decisions, should be translated into Kurdish. For this purpose, a committee was formed in the Ministry of Justice.Also, Article 6 of the Judiciary Law in the Kurdistan Region No. 23 of 200, again emphasizes that Kurdish is the language of the courts. In addition, Law No. 6 of 2014 on the official languages in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq states in its 6th article that all judicial procedures will be conducted and written in the Kurdish language.In addition, Law No. 7 of 2014 on the official languages in Iraq in Article 3 clearly states that both Arabic and Kurdish are official languages in Iraq, and the Kurdistan Region is a part of Iraq which means that no legal loopholes exist in this regard.The Kurdish language according to the Iraqi constitution is an official language in Iraq. If Arabic is the first language in the Arab-majority regions, then Kurdish is the first language of the Kurdistan Region and should be the language of administration and governance in the region. But this constitutional right has not yet been implemented completely.&nbsp;According to our investigation on the usage of Kurdish in the courts we found out that the attempt to make Kurdish the language of the courts in the provinces of Erbil, Silemani, Halabja and the administration of Garmyan and Raparrin has been moderately successful, and all petitions, writing, notices, and court transcripts are in Kurdish in all courts, only court decisions are in Arabic in most courts. However, in the province of Duhok, until now Arabic is the most used language in the courts and not much progress has been made. Regarding the decisions of the Kurdistan region's Court of Appeals, so far they are mostly in Arabic, which is contrary to Article 6 of the judiciary No. 23 of 2007 and Article 6 of the Law of official languages of the Kurdistan Region No. 6 of 2014. &nbsp;In their most recent attempt to make Kurdish a legal language, the Judicial Council in the Kurdistan Region according to decision No. 67 on 26/9/2022 in order to unite the language of the courts in the Kurdistan Region decided that court decisions and all judicial proceedings in the Kurdistan Region should be written in Kurdish and only in Arabic when necessary. However, despite this decision, many court procedures and decisions especially in the province of Duhok are still in Arabic, so the judicial council should seriously investigate the results of the decision issues.&nbsp; Challenges facing the development of the Kurdish language in Courts&nbsp;in this section we will mention the challenges facing the Kurdish language that have prevented it from being fully established as an official language within Iraq and the Kurdistan Region:&nbsp;The absence of a language policy, and the absence of strong political will from the Iraqi government and Kurdistan regional government to make Kurdish a functioning official language throughout Iraq, including the Kurdistan Region.&nbsp; The lack of a standard Kurdish language due to the dominance of regional dialects, has prevented the establishment of a standard language.&nbsp; The historical dominance of Arabic as the language of the Islamic religion and then as the language of the state, has caused the Arabic language to dominate and marginalize the other languages.&nbsp; The outdated understanding of the Iraqi authorities who believe that the development of the Kurdish language encourages separatist movements and may be used by external forces. Therefore, they constantly try to enforce one official language, the language of the majority.&nbsp; The logistical obstacles that hinder the establishment of multilingual systems in education and administration.&nbsp; Globalization and the development of a global market makes it difficult for local languages to keep up with the pace of developments, which prevents speakers of these languages from using their languages to convey meanings and concepts, which in turn gradually weaken local languages. The understanding among some jurists that Arabic is the language of the law and Kurdish cannot become the language of the law.&nbsp; The small number of legal and judicial resources in Kurdish has led to lawyers to rely on Arabic sources for any legal work and research, which in turn has resulted in the gradual marginalization of the Kurdish language in the field of law in the past thirty years.&nbsp; The lack of attention given by higher education institutions to conducting academic research in Kurdish has marginalized the language in this regard.&nbsp; Results:Minorities have the right to benefit from their own culture and to use their own language freely , openly, and privately, without any interference or discrimination and states have the duty to assist and support minorities in this regard and to provide them with the necessary opportunities and facilities.&nbsp; The Kurdish language in Iraq and the Kurdistan region has constitutional and legal recognition, and as showcased in this paper there are no legal problems, but both governments are slow and indifferent in implementing the content of the laws.&nbsp; Regarding the status of the Kurdish language in the context of the judiciary and courts of the region, according to the applicable judiciary law, Kurdish is the official language of the courts, but this text has not been fully implemented.&nbsp; The Kurdistan Regional Government does not have a language policy or a clear roadmap regarding the status of the Kurdish language, and throughout its three decades of rule, has not been able to establish a standard Kurdish language throughout the Kurdistan Region.&nbsp;Recommendations:The judicial council should draw a roadmap and strategy to make all judicial procedures and decisions Kurdish in all courts and throughout the Kurdistan Region.&nbsp; The Kurdistan Regional Government should formulate a language policy and a national strategy for the creation and consolidation of a standard Kurdish language. Efforts should be made to consolidate the Kurdish language in the federal institutions of Iraq and solve the problems facing this issue.&nbsp; Since Kurdish is an official language in Iraq and the Kurdistan Region, knowledge of Kurdish must be a prerequisite for the employment of those working in the judicial institutions in the Kurdistan Region.&nbsp; Education in Kurdish should be promoted at all levels, without neglecting and ignoring the importance of learning other languages. Establishment of a commission on official languages to follow up the official languages act and monitor its implementation.&nbsp; The judicial council of the Kurdistan Region and the Kurdish Language Academy should coordinate to develop and unify legal terms and issue a dictionary of legal terms that will serve as a resource for the courts.&nbsp; Enrichment of the Kurdish library in all fields, especially the legal field by promoting and encouraging writing, research, as well as translation of legal sources in Kurdish, so it becomes a support for researchers and scientific centers and to reward scientific writing, so it motivates and encourages more writing in Kurdish.&nbsp; ReferencesMaster’s in Public Law and a Judicial Investigator at the Erbil Court of Investigation رسمیت چند زبان و تنوع زبانی دراروپا، در سایت زیر قابل مشاهدە است: http://eyitimhaqqi.blogspot.com/ last visited:2021/3/3. رەزا شەجیعی، ئەڵقەی زمانیی ١٩٤٦ (ئاوڕدانەوەیەک لە بەرنامەڕێژییە زمانییەکانی کۆماری کوردستان)، گۆڤاری زمانەوان، ئەنستیتۆی فەرهەنگی کوردستان- تاران، ژمارە ٣، ٢٠٠٧، ل ١٢٠. Crow Samuel, comparatively speaking: language rights in the United States and Canada, 2012, Canada-United states law Journal, volum37, issue 1, p.209. اومود.آ (اورمولو)، آموزش بە زبان مادری، بدون محل نشر، ١٣٩٤، صص ١٥-١٧ د.رفیق سابیر، بە ستانداردکردنی زمان و ئەلفوبێی کوردی، چاپی دووەم، ناوەندی غەزەلنووس بۆ چاپ و بڵاوکردنەوە، سلێمانی، ٢٠١٤، ل ٢٠-٢١. معاذ عبداللهی و د.جوانمیر عبداللهی، نسل زدایی فرهنگی ، چاپ اول، انتشارات مجد، تهران، ١٣٩٣، صص ١٧٤-١٧٥. د.هۆگر مەحموود فەرەج، ڕۆژی زمانی زگماک زمانی کوردی لەبەردەم هەڕەشە مێژوویی و سەردەمییەکاندا، گۆڤاری ئاکادیمیای کوردی، ژمارە ٣٢، هەولێر، ساڵی ٢٠١٥، ل ٦٠-٦١. Naheed Saba, Linguistic Heterogeneity and Multilinguality in India: A Linguistic Assessment of Indian Language Policies, Submitted for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Department of Linguistics Aligarh Muslim University (India), 2011, &nbsp;p.77. فردوس آقاگل زاده و دیگران، تحليل زبان شناختي آرای قضايي براساس الگوی خلاق: رويكرد حوزە زبان شناسی حقوقی، فصلنامە پژوهش های زبان و ادبيات تطبيقی، دورە اول، شمارە اول، بهار ١٣٨٩، ص ١٢. روح الدین کردعلیوند، زبانشناسی حقوقی، انسان و فرهنگ، ویژه نامه «زبان و متن»، سال دوم خرداد ۱۳۹۲، شماره ۳، ص ١٤ هیوا ئیبراهیم حەیدەری، بەرەو بە کوردی کردنی زمانی یاسا چەند تێبینی و پێشنیارێک، گۆڤاری تەرازوو، یەکێتیی مافپەروەرانی کوردستان، ژمارە ١٤، ساڵی ٢٠٠٢، ل ١٠٢. د.أحمد عبدالظاهر، اللغة العربية والقانون، الطبعة الاولی، دار وجوە للنشر والتوزیع، الریاض، ٢٠١٨، ص ١٦. قاسم محەممەد مستەفا، بە کوردی نووسینی یاسا و یاسایی زاراوە یاساییە کوردییەکان، گۆڤاری تەرازوو، یەکێتیی مافپەروەرانی کوردستان، ژمارە ١٤، ساڵی ٢٠٠٢، ل ١١٤. د.نووری تاڵەبانی، فەرهەنگی قانوونی، چاپی پێنجەم، وەزارەتی داد و وەزارەتی ڕؤشنبیری و لاوان، هەولێر، ٢٠١٠، ل ١٣. امیر کلان، چە کسی از آموزش چند زبانە می هراسد، ترجمە د.هیوا ویسی، Channel View Publications Ltd. / Multilingual Matters، ٢٠١٨، ص ١٩. امیر ناظمی، سیاست زبان در جمهوری اسلامی ایران: پیشنهادهای سیاستی درخصوص زبان و زبان آموزی، فصلنامۀ مطالعات راهبردی سیاستگذاری عمومی، دورۀ ٨ ، شمارۀ ٢٦، بهار١٣٩٧، ص ٢٤٦.

The Kurdish language in the courts of the Kurdistan Region: between Law and Reality

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